Chapter 2.4 Chapter 5: Communication Theory

1. Chapter 2.4 & Chapter 5:Communication Theory Theories of communication Shannon Schramm Berlo Interpersonal vs. mass communication Interactivity

2. Definitions & Roots Multimedia involves both computers and communication Computer science focus Representation, manipulation, transmission, and reception of information on real or theoretical machines built by humans E.g., representation of binary data Communication science Human aspects of processing information, regardless of the media or communication system E.g., meaning of an image

3. Communication Science Transfer of information between two agents E.g., two people Information includes intentionally conveyed content, unintentionally conveyed content, speech, emotions Media system used to accomplish the communication E.g., a phone, a billboard, a multimedia presentation

4. Communication Science:Some Areas of Study Empathy Conflict & communication relevant to group behavior Educational use of technology Communication skills Communication strategies and instructional outcomes Reading & listening Advertising

5. Levels of CommunicationIssues Technical How can the symbols of communication be transmitted? Semantics How do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning? Effectiveness How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct [e.g., behavior] in the desired way?

6. Views of Communication Transmission view Sending, giving, imparting information Clear aspects of mechanistic view; computer and information processing Directed towards achieving goals, purpose Ritual view Communication transmits �social reality as perceived by that society� (p. 272) Symbols as representations both for and of reality Not directed towards achieving goals?

7. Emphasis is on Human as Receiver & Interpreter of the Communication

8. Mathematical Theory ofCommunication Shannon�s theory of communication Claude Shannon �linear� theory of communication Also known as �information theory� Information Not to be confused with meaning log2 of the number of possible messages This is called entropy Message Transmitted by information source Message has a physical form, called the signal

9. Mathematical theory ofcommunication - 2 Channel Physical medium for signal E.g., air in spoken communication Noise source Changes to the signal unintended by information source From Figure 5.1 of main text.From Figure 5.1 of main text.

10. Schramm�s Model of Communication - 1 Source & destination Encoding Decoding Interpretation �Sign� is output of decoding And input to interpretation Responses to sign are the meaning of the sign Interpreted on basis of context & experience Response choice initiates a new message Need overlap in �field of experience� �common ground� A shared language can be the shared field of experience

11. Schramm�s & Berlo�s Models of Communication Communication is continuous & dynamic Interaction between communicating parties Written text is a type of communication, but is missing interactive aspects What?

12. Feedback Person talking receives �messages� resulting directly from first message Backchannel feedback Sources of feedback From recipient(s) Head nods, frowns, thumbs up, thumbs down Self-monitoring Through sender�s own senses: ears (speech) & eyes (writing) E.g., were the senders words pronounced correctly, was there a speech error?

13. Lessons for Multimedia:Overlap of Fields of Experience What do the signs used in the multimedia presentation mean to the user? Text, images, and symbols used Should overlap with fields of experience in the potential users of the Multimedia presentation Icons often assume shared experience E.g., icons for forward ? & backward ? Media literacy (from Chapter 2.4.3) Understanding and comprehension of images, sound, interactivity (and other media) For example, how images are manipulated for effect

14. What media literacy or shared experience is assumed? Upper: 352x288 Lower: 1000x288 Upper: 352x288 Lower: 1000x288

15. Modification Image has been scaled, but aspect ratio has not been held constant, introducing distortion Aspect ratio: The ratio of an image�s width to its height. For example, a 640x480 image has an aspect ratio of 1.33 : 1 or 4:3 (from p. 413, lab text nidex) On previous slide Upper image resolution: 352x288 Aspect ratio: 1.22 : 1 Lower image resolution: 1000x288 Aspect ratio: 3.47 : 1

16. Example What media literacy or shared experience is assumed?

17. Taking the Other�s Perspective In effective communication, one needs to keep the other party in mind What do they know? How do they feel? What is their attentional state? Are they interested? Motivated? This has been described in psychology as a �theory of mind� (e.g., Wellman, 1990) We need to have knowledge of the other parties mental state In multimedia, we need to know our audience, and try to tailor our presentation to the person, and their knowledge, feeling, attentional state, motivation. Wellman, H. M. (1990). The Child�s Theory of Mind. MIT Press.Wellman, H. M. (1990). The Child�s Theory of Mind. MIT Press.

18. Lessons for Multimedia:Backchannel Feedback How can we give/receive backchannel feedback? E.g., In a chatroom situation emoticons can serve as backchannel feedback When should we give/receive backchannel feedback?

19. Communication Types Interpersonal Communicators intentionally orient towards each other Attempt to take each other�s perspectives High degree of control over message content with both sender & receiver Mass Sender transmitting to large, diverse, heterogeneous, anonymous, geographically dispersed, and socially distant audience Low level of interaction Receiver often has low degree of control over message content Impersonal A type of interpersonal or mass communication Strategies based on group not individual

20. Some Examples Personal Two friends talking �A Mother�s kiss� Impersonal Reading a news paper Using a dictionary With changes in technology, perhaps �mass� communication is not necessarily impersonal? Online agents that can learn about individuals E.g., chat room �robots� Humans have programmed most of a computer�s response A single person typically uses a multimedia presentation But, there is a development team, and a perhaps wider audience of users Humans have programmed most of a computer�s response A single person typically uses a multimedia presentation But, there is a development team, and a perhaps wider audience of users

21. Mass CommunicationAssumptions �a multimedia producer should attempt to simulate interpersonal communication as closely as possible� (p. 284) What are the assumptions?

22. Assumptions Mass communication = bad E.g., Less effective Interpersonal = good E.g., More effective Goals Creating personalized interactions Tailoring learning to an individual Increasing effectiveness of presentations Mass media lessons may be usefully applied; e.g., attention grabbing, holding, entertainmentMass media lessons may be usefully applied; e.g., attention grabbing, holding, entertainment

23. Interaction in Multimedia �degree to which participants in a communication process have control over, and can exchange roles in, their mutual discourse� (p. 287) Interactivity tends to be higher with one-on-one communication �interpersonal communication is often thought of as the ultimate form of [human] communication interactivity� User as having an unfolding, mutual, dialog with the multimedia presentation Not just a recipient of information

24. Interactivity Interactivity �the degree to which users of a medium can influence the form or content of the mediated environment� (Steuer, 1992) Range The number of different elements under viewer control Extent to which the elements can be varied Speed Rate at which input can be assimilated into mediated environment & responses can be presented to user Mapping Quality of relating actions of user to those of computer Must reflect user field of experience

25. Speed & Related Terms �transparency� Degree to which input & output components of a multimedia system tend to �disappear� (be forgotten by the user) �immediacy� �involvement with the task � rather than [distraction] by the equipment�

26. Interactivity:Degree of Interaction Degrees (levels) of interaction Broadcast TV Cable TV Video games Control activity with keyboard, joystick, game paddle Logical interaction: responses to situations, answers to questions, user directives issued Multimedia productions Face-to-face communication Balance �Optimal interactivity occurs when there is a balance of control between the human learner and the computer�

27. �Key ingredients� of Interactivity Immediacy of response �The closer to instantaneous the response rate can be, the less artificial a multimedia interaction seems to a user, that is, the more �transparent� the medium appears� Nonsequential access to information In conversation: Topic shifts Multimedia should allow access to information in a user defined order Adaptability Tailoring messages to interests, abilities, goals of user Feedback Information provided from user to program (and from program to user) Verbal material (speech, typed, text), positional information, timing information Response rates over two seconds distract user Focus more on computer rather than task Response rates over two seconds distract user Focus more on computer rather than task