19 th C

1. 19th C Revolution/Reaction/Revolution

2. Congress of Vienna (1814) • To decide what to do with the chaos of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars • Pretty much four who met only informally to hash out settlement: Austria (Metternich), Prussia (Bismarck), Russia (Alexander I) and Britain + France (Talleyrand) trying to influence from the wings • VERY conservative: aim, to restore ancien regime and repudiate aims of liberals and French Revolution; spokesman of these ideals: Metternich

3. Europe after the Congress of Vienna

4. Methods: back to “good old days” • Wanted “balance of power” between great powers to prevent another empire from swallowing Europe • Lombardy (Napoleon seized) back to Austria +Venice • Belgium + Netherlands = kingdom of Holland as buffer vs France • Confederacy of Germany (39 states under Austria) • Prussia: territory along Rhine and half of Poland as buffer vs France • Britain got Capetown in So. Africa, Malta, kept Gibraltar • Restoration of old monarchies, as much as possible • Influence of Talleyrand: Bourbon Louis XVIII for France • Alexander I of Russia becomes King of Poland (remainder) • Strengthening of position of Austrian Habsburg monarchy

5. Concert System • Quadruple Alliance formed for periodic meetings of participants in Congress • 1818: added France, changed name to “Concert system” • Aim: to provide united front vs possible threat to conservative regimes: • Intervention Italy 1821 to put down revolution • Spain 1823 vs agitation for liberal change • BUT fought for liberation in Greek Revolution (1821-30) vs Ottoman (Turks) Empire • It worked: no major European wars first ½ of Century • BUT vs trend of thinking • Growth of liberalism and demand for reform • Ideas of Enlightenment and Romanticism promoted individual liberty and passion for scientific research and progress • Constitutionalism and right to vote for common people

6. Age of -isms Many of the ideas and ideologies that shape our world originated or were modified in the 19th Century Most of these –isms deal with economics; however, many also describe or impact the social systems of class and hierarchy and imply political action. Other –isms deal with politics and imply economic action. All are interrelated.

7. Political Concepts revived or new to the 19th C • Liberalism (see following slides): wanted to end inherited political and economic privileges and establish constitutional government based on legal equality and representation • Democracy: More radical than liberalism. Supported not only legal equality but also active political participation by the common man • Socialism: Even more radical. Property and wealth should be redistributed according to individual needs • Nationalism: States should be based not on dynastic principles, but on ethnic, linguistic, and historical bonds. Shared language, ethnicity, and history is highest principle of political organization

8. Class Consciousness • Owners – capitalists • Non-landed middle class and white collar workers – bourgeoisie • Factory and trade workers—proletariat

9. Conservatism • Reactionaries (Put it back the way it was) • Revolt against conservatism: Revolutions of 1848 • Successful revolutions in most European countries • Monarchies returned after 6 months in all • Britain: party of conservatives: Tories/conservatives • pro landowners over commerce and middle class, monarchical, vs expanding electorate

10. Liberalism • Favored changing government to improve social conditions • Whigs • Edmund Burke • Opposite view of Nationalism: not natural rights of man, but traditional rights inherited as part of national legacy; no right to revolt if such “rights” not protected • Supported American Revolution, but decried the French Revolution—(split Whigs over French Revolution): believed in limited monarchy • Law of unintended consequences • Example: Prussia forced to take over the Ruhr Valley which, unknowingly, has the coal reserves to allow Prussia to conquer the rest of Germany

11. Promoters of Liberal Ideals • Poets/novelists • Romantic idealism • Natural life superior (noble savage) • Aimed at complacent middle class • Charles Dickens • Social conditions • Honorè de Balzac • Stupid middle class • Jane Austen • Against classes • The Bronte sisters • Against male domination

12. Waves of Revolutions • 1821 beginning in France (again) • 1830 • 1848-50

13. Spain Loses her Empire • Revolution of 1820 • During Napoleonic Wars: • Throne from Charles III to Ferdinand (son) to Charles (Napoleon) who abdicated for Napoleon’s brother Joseph • Liberal nationalists with British support resisted French; set up Cortes of Cadiz (legislature): wrote Constitution of 1812 • Limited monarchy with power in single chamber Cortes • Curb nobility and Catholic Church; abolish Spanish Inquisition • Protected individual rights • Voting to property owners; business powers gained voice • Only in force temporarily: rest of 19th C and much of 20th rebellions to put it in force • Ferdinand VII • Restored to power at Congress of Vienna • Promised to abide by constitution, but once in power, dissolved Cortes: absolutist rule • After several unsuccessful rebellions, 1820 successful revolution forced constitution of 1812 on king • Congress of Vienna powers met in Verona, ok’d French to invade to restore Ferdinand to absolute power • 1823 revoked constitution: ruthless repression of revolutionaries • When Ferdinand died, liberals supported his daughter as Isabella II and conservative forces supported his brother, Charles = Carlist Wars • All of these wars and rebellions from Napoleonic times forward resulted in weak colonial government from Spain—colonies began declaring and fighting for independence, ending only at turn of 20th Century with Spanish American War

14. Mexican Wars for Independence • Conditions in Latin America encouraging rebellion: • Social stratification: peninsulares favored over criollos (Indios, mestizos, negros totally ignored and exploited by both groups) • Political exploitation: best offices to peninsulares; NOT based on talent and competence

15. Simon Bolivar • one of South America's greatest generals • victories over the Spaniards won independence for Bolivia, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela: • called El Liberator (The Liberator) and the "George Washington of South America." • Educated and grew up in Europe during Napoleonic times • Married, wife died of yellow fever, vowed never to remarry • Voice for independence in Europe: • Joined the group of patriots that seized Caracas in 1810 and proclaimed independence from Spain.  • went to Great Britain for aid,: only a promise of British neutrality.  • Wrote Cartagena Manifesto in which he argued that New Granada (Now Columbia, Ecuador, Panama) should help liberate Venezuela because their cause was the same and Venezuela's freedom would secure that of New Granada. • took command of a Colombian force and captured Bogota in 1814, but lacked men and supplies, and new defeats led Bolivar to flee to Jamaica.  In Haiti gathered a force, landed in Venezuela in 1816, took Angostra (now Ciudad Bolivar), became dictator there.

16. marched into New Granada, 1819, defeated the Spaniards in Boyar in 1819, liberating the territory of Colombia.  He then returned to Angostura and led the congress that organized the original republic of Colombia (now Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, and Venezuela) and became its first president, 1819. • crushed the Spanish army at Carabobo in Venezuela, 1821.  • marched into Educador and added that territory to the new Colombian republic.  • After a meeting in 1822 with San Martin, Bolivar fought for and became dictator of Peru; victory over the Spaniards at Auacucho in 1824 ended Spanish power in South America.  • Upper Peru became a separate state, (Bolivia, after Bolivar) in 1825.  The constitution which he drew up for Bolivia is one of his most important political pronouncements.

17. France from Napoleon to 3rd Republic

18. Louis XVIII • Son of brother of Louis XV; nephew of Louis XVI restored to power by Congress of Vienna • Agreed to grant charter making him a monarch on British pattern, even though really believed in “divine right” • King executive; legislative him + 2 chambered legislature: 1 appointed by him, 1 by restricted suffrage • After Napoleon’s 100 days, Congress of Vienna took harsh measures vs France • Lost Savoy • occupation by foreign troops until paid war reparations indemnity of 700 million in gold (130 million/yr); talks brought it down to 265 million, but still more than whole annual budget • Elected chamber = stubborn royalists, so Allies forced out and elected new one which sped up indemnity payments and got troops out

19. Military: conscription by lot, promotion by ability, Not controlled by nobility • BUT suppressed press; gave double vote to the rich • Spain 1821: insurrection forced king to swear by constitution; coup attempt put power in hands of extreme left; king virtual prisoner to revolutionaries • Alexander and Metternich voted to intervene to stop revolution • England neutral, but didn’t want France intervening • Fr Minister of Foreign Affairs, Montmorency, secretly sent arms to Spanish royalists • Eventually Louis forced into war: sent 95,000 into Spain; easily marched to Madrid and restored Ferdinand to throne—brought prestige to Louis • Opposition power under Chateaubriand • Minister who was upset when not supported in power, so deserted Louis • Louis—horrible death from gangrene, but no children • Ancien regime king who insisted on appointment of officials, municipal leaders

20. Charles X • Another nephew of Louis XVI, brother to Louis XVIII • Contrasting life to Louis • Dissolute, unfaithful to wife; favorite mistress sister to Marie Antoinette’s friend • She died in London, made him promise to reform and find God, so influenced by confessor, whom he made cardinal • Liberal at first (restored some press freedom), but • Granted indemnities to emigres deprived of property 1792 • Declared primogeniture (opposed by peers—favored oldest sons) • Wave of anticlericalism, so suppressed press again • Appointed royalist, absolutist deputies

21. Downfall: • National Guard demonstrations against him: Charles disbanded the guard • Revolution of 1830: Address of 221 a petition from the legislature that said the king had to have support of the populace to put his policies into effect; he didn’t have it • King dissolved chamber for new elections, so his ministers resigned • 202 of the 221 reelected: 270 liberals vs 150 royalists in legislature • 4 Ordinances King’s answer/retaliation • Suppressed freedom of press • Dissolved new chamber illegally (hadn’t met yet) • Restricted vote even further • Set elections for September 1830

22. 1830 Revolution, July Uprising Uprising in Paris: 3 days of rioting and barricades; most of deputies (legislators) and some of army sided with the people (think Les Miserables and painting “Liberty Leading the People) King abdicated and went to London in exile

24. Louis Philippe: July monarchy • Liberal: father (descendant of one of sons of Louis XIV) voted for death of cousin Louis XVI • Duke of Orleans; Career in army • Supported Dumoriez in war vs Austria during Revolution • When Dumoriez deserted to Austria, he escaped to Switzerland • Exiled: traveled until Charles X restored him (not Louis—afraid of his popularity) • Abdication of Charles X: Louis Philippe more or less elected king, constitutional monarch • Because of his liberal politics, he was asked to be king

25. At first, liberal: more electorate, less strict press censorship, no state religion, bourgeoise ministers, • BUT took National Guard command from LaFayette (though he was the one who insisted Louis Philippe become king) • Success in foreign policy • More of revolutions of 1830: Begium revolted vs Holland, offered monarchy to his son; Louis Philippe refused. Talleyrand negotiated “perpetual neutrality” of Belgium, Louis’s dau married king Leopold of Saxe Coberg (widower of dau of king of England) • Social unrest • Increasing industrialization meant horrible working and living conditions in cities for laborers • Peasant riots: sacked archbishop’s palace • Revolts in So France encouraged by Napoleon’s nephew, Louis Napoleon • Rebellion by Blanqui (anarchist) took Hotel de Ville

26. Guizot’s Conservative Position • I am, for my part, a decided enemy of universal suffrage. I look upon it as the ruin of democracy and liberty. If I needed proof I would have it under my very eyes; I will not elucidate. However, I should permit myself to say, with all the respect I have for a great country and a great government, that the inner danger, the social danger by which the United States appears menaced is due especially to universal suffrage; it is that which makes them run the risk of seeing their real liberties, the liberties of everybody, compromised, as well as the inner order of their society. . Guizot • Chief minister under Louis Philippe: intellectual, critic, moderate • Liberal until after Napoleon’s fall • Supported constitutional monarchy: opposed Louis XVIII policies of absolutism and oppression • 1821 moderate political party: riots made him look conservative because wanted constitutional monarchy • 1830 rewarded for support of monarchy with jobs in government; worked way up to chief minister, but by then, politics had moved to the left, making him look very conservative • Revolution of 1848: sided with king, so although he’d already resigned, in real trouble—escaped to England, but didn’t stay long • Continued as literary figure, social critic

27. Absolutist monarch to end unrest because tired of wrangling • Guizot dissolved constitution • More foreign relations • Algeria conquered and pacified • Anglo French friendship: Entente Cordiale • Son of Louis Philippe m daughter of Spanish princess vs Brit wishes • So turned to Austria for support; people upset because still traditional hatred • Revolution of 1848 • Started with poor harvests of 1846-47: bread prices up, so violent demonstrations • liberal agitators supported by humanitarian landlords, ’progressive’ clergymen, among professional men and the urban population. • King made an authoritarian speech, plus parliament agitating vs Guizot: after demonstrations, Guizot resigned • Put head of rebellion, Thiers, in as minister to pacify opposition, but though tried reforms, too little, too late • Forced abdication of last real king of France

28. Europe 1848

29. After the Revolution of 1848: 2nd Republic • 13 governments in 18 years • Caretaker government: Radicals dominated at first, then quickly lost power (only one worker among governing) • Divisions in Revolutionary ranks: • constituent assembly (elected by universal male suffrage), comprised moderate liberals • People of Paris voted only 34 radical members. • Support for radical policies continued strong among the laboring and poor. • On May 15, revolutionaries led by radicals François Raspail and Louis Blanqui attempted forcibly to take control of the constituent assembly. • demanded intensification of the revolution • called on the people of France to launch an offensive revolutionary war throughout Europe to liberate all peoples still under monarchy • moderate liberals easily retook control of the constituent assembly from the radical firebrands.

30. 2nd Republic, continued • Process of government: • April: Constituent Assembly elected by universal manhood suffrage: moderates • Constitution set elections for single chamber of legislature + president of republic • Louis Napoleon got enormous majority as President • Unrest continued • Louis and Assembly in conflict over policies • Assembly created jobs temporarily, then eliminated them=rioting brutally suppressed • Royalists saw chance to agitate for new king • Louis Napoleon denounced “helplessness” of conservative assembly unpopular in the country • His term over 1852, SO • Seized power 2 Dec 1851: 1852 pronounced 2nd Empire • In plebescite (like uncle) overwhelming vote favoring Louis Napoleon

31. 2nd Empire: Louis Napoleon becomes Napoleon III • Relied on army to seize power • Purged Assembly and magistrates, university leaders, administrators in the government of all who didn’t support him • 1852 declared self emperor: ambition as 2nd Napoleon • “The Empire means peace.” Didn’t want expansion of uncle, nor war • Social minded: wanted good, but his way

32. Louis Napoleon: policies and politics • Positive: • Time of amazing economic expansion • Railroads 2,000 mi in 1800: 12,000 mi in 1870 • Machine tools, steam power dominate • Increase of public works, business and agriculture prosper (for rich) • Tried hard to better condition of workers and peasants: granted right to strike, form unions • Tried later to liberalize regime, giving gradually more power to assembly, making ministers accountable to assembly, not him • Negative • More, stronger opposition from Catholics and industrialists who didn’t like workers’ increasing strikes • Lost 1 million votes in election 1869

33. Foreign Affairs • Crimean War: sided with Britain against Russia to shore up Ottoman Turks; Congress of Paris ended • Supported Cavour vs Austria (rewarded with Nice and Savoy) • Worldwide expansion into China, Indo China, Algeria • Mexico: put Habsburg Maximilian on “throne” of Mexico; didn’t work—executed

34. Franco Prussian War • Bismarck manipulates the war: • Hohenzollern was candidate for Spanish throne • The French issued an ultimatum to Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia to withdraw candidate: he did. • Further aiming to humiliate Prussia, Napoleon III then required Wilhelm to renounce any possible further Hohenzollern candidature to the Spanish throne. King Wilhelm refused. • Bismarck phrased the king's refusal in the famous Ems Telegram, basically a propagandized account of the negotiations between France and Prussia making Prussia and Wilhelm look patriotic, leaking the document to the press. • Outraged, the French declared war on Prussia. • Over a six-month campaign, the German armies defeated the French in a series of battles fought across northern France. • Napoleon III went to aid of beleaguered armies • After a decisive defeat, Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan, • Prussians to gates of Paris, shelling the city: 6 month siege • Treaty of Frankfurt (with 3rd Republic): • France lost Alsace / Lorraine, had to pay 5 billion franc war indemnity

36. 3rd Republic and Commune: 1870 • Taking advantage of the defeat, Thiers proclaims a conservative government with the Assembly backing him, BUT • Working people demand fruits of revolution so long denied them • Specific demand of people: Paris should be self-governing, with own elected Commune, (as most French towns), • Government didn’t want, because demonstrations and violence of masses of Paris • .An associated but more vague wish was for a fairerway of managing the economy, summed up in the popular cry for "La Sociale!" • During the siege of Paris by Prussian army • many tens of thousands of Parisians were armed members of a citizens' militia known as the “National Guard", greatly expanded to help defend the city. • Battalions in the poorer districts elected own officers and possessed many cannons manufactured in Paris and paid for by public subscription. • The city with National Guard had withstood the Prussian troops for six months. • To end siege, Thiers government allowed Prussian occupation of Paris: people outraged, limited Prussians to tiny portion of city; Thiers worried about possible uprising • National Guards, helped by ordinary working people, took cannons (which they regarded as theirs) away from the Prussians' areas to "safe" districts.

37. The Commune (March-May 1871) • Central Committee of the National Guard became increasingly radical and gained in power, • Thiers’ government could not indefinitely allow it to have four hundred cannons. • Thiers ordered regular troops to seize the cannons on Montemartre • The soldiers, morale low, mixed with National Guards and locals • General Lecomte ordered them to fire on an unarmed crowd they dragged him from his horse. He was later shot, together with General Thomas, a hated former commander of the Guard picked up by a mob. • Other military units joined uprising • The government flees: • President Thiers ordered an immediate evacuation of Paris by as many of the regular forces as would obey; by the police; and by administrators and specialists of every kind. He fled to Versailles • Thiers thought about this strategy ("retreat from Paris to crush the people afterward.”) since 1848 • Organization of the Commune • Central Committee of the National Guard, only effective government in Paris, almost immediately abdicated authority and arranged elections for a Commune • The 92 members of the Commune ("Communal Council") included skilled workers, several "professionals" (such as doctors and journalists), political activists, from reformist republicans, t various socialists, to Jacobins • Although the Paris Commune is considered a milestone in the organization of feminism, with some (women actively participated to the events), they still did not acquire right to vote, no female members of the Council.

38. What it did • Only in power 60 days, so not much • Put Blanqui (anarchist) as head, but he was in prison during whole time • Passed the following to help the people • the remission of rents for the entire period of the siege (during which they had been raised considerably by many landlords); • the abolition of night work in the hundreds of Paris bakeries; • the abolition of the guillotine • granting of pensions to unmarried companions of National Guards killed on active service and children, if any; • the free return, by the state pawnshops, of all workmen's tools pledged during the siege (concerned that skilled workers were forced to pawn r tools during the war) • postponement of debt obligations, abolition of interest on the debts; • right of employees to take over and run an enterprise if deserted by its owner. • Separated church and state: made all church property state property and excluded religion from schools. • churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings.

39. Importance • The Paris Commune has been celebrated by anarchist and Marxist socialists continuously until the present day, • high degree of workers' control • remarkable cooperation among different revolutionists. • Engels identified Commune as “dictatorship of proletariat” • absence of a standing army, • the self-policing of the "quartiers", • no longer a "state" in the old, repressive sense.

40. End of the Commune • Constant attack from Versailles army • Commune forms “committee of public safety” = people afraid to take authority • Though much verbal support from international radicals, no real help • Strength becomes weakness: army obeys central command; commune meant independence of each area of city; had to defend selves separately • Let into gates of richer area of city, army took one area at a time • Many atrocities and killings by army • Commune took 50 hostages (many priests) and killed them • Once the army took the city, reprisals: Communards were shot against Communards’ Wall in a cemetery, thousands of others marched to Versailles for trials; few escaped • 30,000 dead, many more wounded, and perhaps as many as 50,000 later executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to uninhabited islands • Martial law for 5 years in Paris

41. 3rd Republic • Tried to reestablish monarchy with gson of Charles X, but he refused. • New constitution: • 7 year President; could dissolve chamber • Assemblies: lawmaking and budget • Chamber of Deputies 4 years elected by universal manhood suffrage • Senate –9 year terms; 1/3 elected every 3 years by limited suffrage • Council of State (President is president) determines constitutionality of laws • Republicans divided • Opportunists: want gradual reform • Radicals: want immediate reform

42. Succession of Presidents • Many only serve a few months • Jules Ferry: serves several years and makes social reform • Freedom of assembly for workers, unions’ • Liberal freedom of the press • Reorganization of departments and cantons • Compulsory state primary education • Secondary education open to girls • Colonial Expansion • Tunisia (1881) • French Western Africa (Sudan + Dahomey) • Madagascar • Congo—French Equatorial Africa • Indochina • (Panama, for awhile—scandal and failure)

43. Dreyfus Affair • Young Jewish officer accused of treason 1894 • Incriminating letters to German attache in handwriting that looked like his • Catholic and royalists and other conservatives tried to make big issue of “Jewish plot” and weakness of Republic to defend vs • Though scant evidence, not allowed to see evidence vs him, judged guilty, sentenced to life exile on Devil’s island • Another officer, Georges Picquart, questioned his guilt • Found evidence to prove guilty officer Walsin Esterhazy, BUT • Army couldn’t admit failure; more interested in image than justice • Transferred Picquart to Tunisia • International eye on French army because of Zola’s J’Accuse • Zola found guilty of libeling army, sentenced to prison • Fled to England, where continued to rally defenders • In answer, Catholics and Conservatives claimed conspiracy of Jews and Masons to damage reputation of army, destroy France • Re court martial 1899: found guilty again, sentenced to 10 years detention • Another officer found additional documents forged to strengthen case vs Dreyfus (identified forger, who committed suicide). • President of France pardoned him; not exonerated, however, until 1906. • Consequences: opposite of what Catholics and conservatives intended • Jaurez (President) support of anticlericalism: total separation of church and state • Closed monasteries and convents, seized property • Forbid church primary and secondary schools • Broke off diplomatic relations with Vatican

44. England: less volatile, more stable in an era of change • Stable constitutional monarchy under Georges and William • Victorian Era: long time queen – 64 year reign • “Sun never sets….” Empire • Middle class values dominate • Lower classes pay: rebellions that reflect the tenor of times in Europe • 2 party system: Tories, then Whigs, then Tories • Gladstone vs Disraeli—liberal desire for reform vs conservative push to keep status quo • reforms to benefit all

45. Why Reform was needed: • Political abuses • “rotten boroughs” • “pocket boroughs” • Disenfranchisement of industrial cities • Tiny, aristocratic electorate • Established Church of privilege, not service • Social abuses • Laissez faire economics: middle class enriching selves on the backs of the poor • Ag and Industrial revolution: movement to cities • Horrible living conditions, no social safety net • Secularization of society: church not providing welfare, nor state, either • Child labor, lack of education • No political rights

46. England: Reaction to French Revolution • Conservatism/ Reactionary: go back to “good old days” • Combination Acts: outlaw workers organizations and unions • Corn Laws 1815 to keep profits of landowners high (as prices had been during Napoleonic wars): starvation for poor • 1816 abolished income tax (paid by rich) and substituted excise tax (on consumer goods—paid by everybody) • Many called for abolition of Poor Laws (public relief for destitute) • Liberals pushed for reform vs “rotten” boroughs, pocket boroughs, restrictions on voting and holding office; curbs on House of Lords • Selection of Duke of Wellington as very conservative PM • He blocked 224 reform bills in commons • So extreme lost own party support

47. Peterloo Massacre • Leading radicals in Manchester (North industrialized, so for reform) formed the Manchester Patriotic Union to obtain parliamentary reform • They invited sympathetic speakers to an outdoor meeting for all in St. Peter’s Field, 16 Aug 1819 • Local leaders worried that such a gathering of reformers might end in a riot. • They decided to arrange for a large number of soldiers to be in Manchester on the day of the meeting. • four squadrons of cavalry of the 15th Hussars (600 men), • several hundred infantrymen, • the Cheshire Yeomanry Cavalry (400 men), • a detachment of the Royal Horse Artillery and two six-pounder guns and • the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry (120 men) • all Manchester's special constables (400 men).

48. At least 50,000 people gathered by midday. • The Boroughreeve and the special constables tried to clear a path through the crowd. • The 400 special constables were ordered to form two continuous lines between where the speeches were to take place, and Mr. Buxton's house where the magistrates were staying. • At 1.30 p.m. the magistrates came to the conclusion that "the town was in great danger". • They decided to arrest Henry Hunt (speaker) and the other leaders of the demonstration and asked for military help to do it. • Trouble: • As the officials moved closer to the speech area, members of the crowd began to link arms to stop them from arresting the leaders. • Others attempted to close the pathway created by the special constables. • Some of the soldiers now began to use their sabres to cut their way through the crowd. • Officials arrested the speakers and the organisers of the meeting, as well as the newspaper reporters at the speakers’ area. • The military commander reported to a town official at 1.50 p.m. When he asked Hulton what was happening, he replied: "Good God, Sir, don't you see they are attacking the Yeomanry? Disperse them." • By 2.00 p.m. the soldiers had cleared most of the crowd from St. Peter's Field. In the process, eleven people were killed and about 400, including 100 women, were wounded.

50. Reformers in Manchester were appalled by the decisions of the magistrates and the behavior of the soldiers and wrote accounts of what they had witnessed. • When one of them discovered that a reporter from the London Times had been arrested and imprisoned, he feared that this was an attempt by the government to suppress news of the event. • He sent his report to the editor of The Times. The article that was highly critical of the magistrates and the yeomanry was published two days later. • Dubbed ”Peteloo” as a contemptuous reference to Waterloo • After the Peterloo Massacre the Home Secretary sent a letter of congratulations to the Manchester magistrates for the action they had taken. • Parliament also passed the Six Acts in an attempt to make sure reform meetings like the one at St. Peter's Field did not happened again.