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Phenomenography. Prepared by: *Reem Ghanem * Ala’a Isleem *Maha Jalal *Maysam Ghanem Supervisor: D.r Aidah Al-kaissi. OUTLINE. Definition of Phenomenography. Aims of Phenomenography. Methods and data analysis of Phenomenography. Criticisms of Phenomenography.
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Prepared by: *Reem Ghanem *Ala’aIsleem *Maha Jalal *Maysam Ghanem Supervisor: D.r Aidah Al-kaissi
OUTLINE • Definition of Phenomenography. • Aims of Phenomenography. • Methods and data analysis of Phenomenography. • Criticisms of Phenomenography. • Educational benefits from this research.
Phenomenography • is an empirical research tradition that was designed to answer questions about thinking and learning, especially in the context of educational research (Marton, 1986). It is concerned with the relationships that people have with the world around them
Phenomenography • . The word Phenomenography has Greek etymological roots. It is derived from the words phainonmenon (appearance) and graphein (description). Thus, Phenomenography is a description of appearances.
Aims of Phenomenographic Research • 1*Marton (1981) suggests that there are two ways to approach questions about learning: (1) to orient ourselves toward the world and make statements about it and its reality, or (2) to orient ourselves towards peoples ideas or experiences of the world. In other words, we can either choose to study a given phenomenon, or we can choose to study how people experience a given phenomenon.
Aims of Phenomenographic Research • Phenomenography is the latter kind of approach. Its aim is to define the different ways in which people experience, interpret, understand, perceive or conceptualize a phenomenon, or certain aspect of reality.
Aims of Phenomenographic Research • Different people will not experience a given phenomenon in the same way. Rather, there will be a variety of ways in which different people experience or understand that phenomenon Phenomenographers seek to identify the multiple conceptions, or meanings, that a particular group of people have for a particular phenomenon.
Phenomenography does not have an articulate metaphysical foundation. The question may be raised if it has implicit (ضمني)metaphysical assumptions(افتراض,ادعاء). Individual researchers doing phenomenographic research may make such assumptions but they certainly vary between the researchers
Although Phenomenography makes no assumption about the nature of reality, it does make assumptions about the nature of conceptions. The primary assumption is that conceptions are the product of an interaction between humans and their experiences with their external world. Specifically, conceptions results from a human beings thinking about his or her external world.
Methods of Phenomenography • Phenomenographic studies strive to discover the different ways in which people understand or experience certain phenomena. Although many possible sources of information can reveal a persons understanding or conception of a particular phenomenon, the method of discovery is usually an open, deep interview.
Open indicates that there is no definite structure to the interview. While researchers may have a list of questions or concerns that they wish to address during the interview.
Deep indicates that the interview will follow a certain line of questioning until it is exhausted, until the participant has nothing else to say and until the researcher and participant have reached some kind of common understanding about the topics of discussion.
Data Analysis • During data analysis, the researcher will identify qualitatively distinct categories that describe the ways in which different people experience a different concept.
If the interview has covered multiple topics or multiple aspects of a given phenomenon, the researcher will attempt to develop an outcome space for each topic.
The only ground rules for category development are internal consistency(تماسك داخلي) and parsimony,(اقتصاد) or finding an outcome space that includes the minimum number of categories which explain all the variations in the data.
With these initial categories in mind, the researcher reexamines the interview transcripts to determine if the categories are sufficiently descriptive and indicative of the data.
This second review of the data results in modification, addition, or deletion of the category descriptions and a third examination of the data for internal consistency of the categories of description
This process of modification and data review continues until the modified categories seem to be consistent with the interview data.
Criticisms of Phenomenography 1*One of the criticisms of Phenomenography is its tendency((ميل,نزعة to equate students experiences with their accounts of those experiences.
2*Saljo (1997) reports that, at times, there appears to be a discrepancy(تناقض) between what researchers observe of a participants experience with a particular phenomenon and how the participant describes his experience with the phenomenon.
3*. Richardson (1999) claims that Phenomenographers do not skeptically examine the effects of the interview environment or of socially accepted linguistic practices on what is reported by the students.
In order to avoid equating experiences with accounts of experiences, Saljo (1997) suggests that we refer to studying peoples different accounting practices of phenomena, which are public and accessible to study, instead of referring to studying peoples experiences
We must keep in mind, however, that such accounting practices may be socially and environmentally influenced (ie. the student might say what he thinks the interviewer wants to hear, etc.).
4*It may be true peoples accounts of their experiences with a particular phenomenon are not equivalent to the ways in which they experience the phenomenon. However, the only way we can begin to understand the ways in which people experience a given phenomenon is to ask each person to describe his or her experience.
5*There is no physical way to examine a persons brain to obtain this data. We, as researchers, can make observations of what people experience, but those observations will not tell us how they experience a given particular phenomenon, especially if we accept the idea that conceptions, or ways of experiencing, are products of an interaction between the person and the phenomenon he experiences.
Other researchers have questioned the reliability and repeatability of phenomenographic studies. On issues of reliability, Marton (1986) says that it is possible that two different researchers would discover different categories of description while working on the same data individually. However, once the categories have been found, they must be described in such a way that all researchers can understand and use them.
Potential Educational Benefits of Phenomenographical Research • There are certain benefits to using the results of phenomenographic research in a higher education institution. At this level of instruction, students are generally encouraged to develop conceptual understandings (Entwistle, 1997).
It is often the goal of teachers to help their students develop conceptions that are consistent with those held by recognized experts in various fields. However, students often have multiple different conceptions for a phenomenon that are not necessarily consistent with the conceptions held by experts.
Thus, phenomenographic information about the different conceptions that students hold for a particular phenomenon may be useful to teachers who are developing ways of helping their students experience or understand a phenomenon from a given perspective.
Another possible benefit of Phenomenographical research is that students may become conscious of contradictions in their own reasoning and become more open to alternative ideas as they reflect on their perceptions and understandings of their world experiences (Marton, 1986).
References • Booth, S. (1997). On phenomenography, learning and teaching. Higher Education Research & Development, 16, 135-159. • Entwistle, N. (1997). Introduction: phenomenography in higher education . Higher Education Research & Development, 16, 127-134. • Hasselgren, B. & Beach, D. (1997). Phenomenography: A good-for-nothing brother of phenomenology? Outline of an analysis. Higher Education Research &>Development, 16, 191- 202. • Marton, F. (1981). phenomenography.Describing conceptions of the world around us. Instructional Science, 10, 177-200. • Marton, F. (1986). phenomenography.A research approach to investigating different understandings of reality. Journal of Thought, 21, 28-49.
