Prenatal, Birth, and Postnatal Periods

1. Chapter 4 Prenatal, Birth, and Postnatal Periods The moment of conception fixes your genetic make-up and sets into motion the complex interactions between the person and environment that will continue for roughly eighty years. From that moment, a single cell begins to adapt to its environment. Within nine lunar months, it will have increased in size two hundred billion times! The menstrual cycle lasts an average of 28 days. About halfway through the cycle, one of many eggs, or ovum, is released by one of two ovaries. If the ovum is not fertilized, it will eventually break down and be sloughed off along with other mucus membrane material and blood. However, if a sperm were to penetrate the cell wall of an ovum moving in the fallopian tube, fertilization takes place and the genotype is fixed. Periods of Prenatal Development - Psychologists divide the prenatal period (conception to birth) into three periods: 1) Ovum 2) Embryo 3) FetusThe moment of conception fixes your genetic make-up and sets into motion the complex interactions between the person and environment that will continue for roughly eighty years. From that moment, a single cell begins to adapt to its environment. Within nine lunar months, it will have increased in size two hundred billion times! The menstrual cycle lasts an average of 28 days. About halfway through the cycle, one of many eggs, or ovum, is released by one of two ovaries. If the ovum is not fertilized, it will eventually break down and be sloughed off along with other mucus membrane material and blood. However, if a sperm were to penetrate the cell wall of an ovum moving in the fallopian tube, fertilization takes place and the genotype is fixed. Periods of Prenatal Development - Psychologists divide the prenatal period (conception to birth) into three periods: 1) Ovum 2) Embryo 3) Fetus

2. A Remarkable Story Transaction between special organism Zygote Unique genetic code Specialized Environment Species Typical Fertilization in fallopian tube (oviduct) Implantation in uterus At birth- billions of specialized cells capable of surviving in complex environment Zygote � a single-cell fertilized ovum Unique Genetic Code � review def. of genetic-constitutional make-up � that which is inherited at conception, including gross physiological characteristics such as sex, physique, and raceZygote � a single-cell fertilized ovum Unique Genetic Code � review def. of genetic-constitutional make-up � that which is inherited at conception, including gross physiological characteristics such as sex, physique, and race

3. Three Prenatal Periods Ovum-Germinal Period ~ 2nd - 14th day Embryonic Period ~2nd-8th week Fetal Period 8th -38th week Ovum-Germinal Period The establishment of the fertilized ovum (called the zygote) marks the beginning of the period of the ovum-germinal period. This period lasts approximately from day 2 to day 14. Germinal � comes from the word �germ� meaning �the rudiment of a living organism� Embryonic Period - this period lasts from the second through the eighth week The free-floating blastula is now connected to the mother�s body. The hair-like blood vessels from the trophoblast burrow their way into the mother�s uterus. Fetal Period � the longest period of prenatal development lasting from the ninth week until birth, and marked by growth and refinement.Ovum-Germinal Period The establishment of the fertilized ovum (called the zygote) marks the beginning of the period of the ovum-germinal period. This period lasts approximately from day 2 to day 14. Germinal � comes from the word �germ� meaning �the rudiment of a living organism� Embryonic Period - this period lasts from the second through the eighth week The free-floating blastula is now connected to the mother�s body. The hair-like blood vessels from the trophoblast burrow their way into the mother�s uterus. Fetal Period � the longest period of prenatal development lasting from the ninth week until birth, and marked by growth and refinement.

4. Ovum-Germinal Period Starts as Zygote in fallopian tube Mitosis produces duplication of cells 32 cell ball called morula Blastula (Blastocyst) differentiates into: Embryoblast (Inner cell mass) � develops into the embryo Trophoblast (Outer protective layer) Becomes amnion, chorio, placenta, allantois (umbilical cord) Ends at implantation in the uterus wall This covers Slides #4 , #5, and #6 I would delete Slide #7 Slide #8 is a review of this information Slide #9 shows illustration of Implantation Mitosis � a process involving the division of a cell into two new cells. Chromosomes are duplicated during this process so that each new cell has exactly the same genetic code as the original cell and all other cells. Morula � the ball-like human organism when it reaches about 32 cells in number. (from the Greek word for Mulberry, which it resembles. Zygote � a single-celled fertilized ovum As the zygote moves through the fallopian tube, it begins the process of mitosis The cells are undifferentiated at this point and have the same genetic makeup, look alike, and function alike. Paternal Twins � also called identical or monozygotic Blastula � (blastocyst) - A hollow sphere of cells formed during the germinal period of prenatal development. It will differentiate into the embryoblast and trophoblast. Differentiation � occurs when the cells of a zygote begin to divide into cells for specific functions Embryoblast - the inner mass of cell that is the part of the blastula or blastocyst that will become the embryo itself. Trophoblast � the outer protective layer of the blastula or blastocyst that develops into the membranes surrounding the child (e.g., the amnion, chorion, placenta, umbilical cord, and allantois) Amnion � an inner membrane surrounding the embryo and containing amniotic fulid Chroion � The protective membrane that surrounds the child and amnion Placental barrier � a semi-permeable membrane that serves as an interface between the blood supply of the mother and that of the child. It is the point of contact for the passage of nutrients into the child and the outflow of waste products from the child. Allantois � a structure that becomes the umbilical cord (the conduit for substances between child and placenta). Implantation � the embedding of the blastula into the uterus This covers Slides #4 , #5, and #6 I would delete Slide #7 Slide #8 is a review of this information Slide #9 shows illustration of Implantation Mitosis � a process involving the division of a cell into two new cells. Chromosomes are duplicated during this process so that each new cell has exactly the same genetic code as the original cell and all other cells. Morula � the ball-like human organism when it reaches about 32 cells in number. (from the Greek word for Mulberry, which it resembles. Zygote � a single-celled fertilized ovum As the zygote moves through the fallopian tube, it begins the process of mitosis The cells are undifferentiated at this point and have the same genetic makeup, look alike, and function alike. Paternal Twins � also called identical or monozygotic Blastula � (blastocyst) - A hollow sphere of cells formed during the germinal period of prenatal development. It will differentiate into the embryoblast and trophoblast. Differentiation � occurs when the cells of a zygote begin to divide into cells for specific functions Embryoblast - the inner mass of cell that is the part of the blastula or blastocyst that will become the embryo itself. Trophoblast � the outer protective layer of the blastula or blastocyst that develops into the membranes surrounding the child (e.g., the amnion, chorion, placenta, umbilical cord, and allantois) Amnion � an inner membrane surrounding the embryo and containing amniotic fulid Chroion � The protective membrane that surrounds the child and amnion Placental barrier � a semi-permeable membrane that serves as an interface between the blood supply of the mother and that of the child. It is the point of contact for the passage of nutrients into the child and the outflow of waste products from the child. Allantois � a structure that becomes the umbilical cord (the conduit for substances between child and placenta). Implantation � the embedding of the blastula into the uterus

5. Reproduction of Cells during Period of the Ovum Duplication of undifferentiated cells As cellular reproduction continues, differentiation begins By the time it enters uterus, two distinct masses have formed See notes on Slide #4See notes on Slide #4

6. The Blastula Embryoblast Inner cell mass becomes the embryo Trophoblast Outer layer of cells becomes fetal membranes amnion chorion allantois Blastula (or blastocyst)- the embryoblast & trophoblast See notes on slide #4See notes on slide #4

7. The Blastula- Basic Structures DeleteDelete

8. Implantation in Uterus Hormones prepare uterine environment Blastula sends out tendrils Only 1/2 of zygotes implant Phase shift in development A Developmental Cusp Marks end of Germinal Period Marks the beginning of Embryonic Period ReviewReview

9. Implantation Hormones prepare uterine environment Blastula sends out tendrils Marks end of Germinal Period Marks the beginning of Embryonic Period The blastocyst consists of 100 � 150 cells during its 7th day. It floats free inside the uterus for a few days before making contact with the uterine wall. Due to the menstrual cycle, the lining of the uterus is engorged with blood. If the blastocyst begins to send tendrils into the lining of the sensitized uterus, hormones will inhibit the menstrual flow. This embedding of the blastocyst (the trophoblast) is called implantation. It occurs around the 14th day after conception, marking the transition from the germinal period to the embryonic period. Embryonic Period � the second of three prenatal periods, beginning with implantation and ending when all of the basic bodily organs have developed. Once the hair-like blood vessels of the trophoblast burrow into the mother�s uterus, a connection is made with the mother�s blood system. These blood vessels become the placental barrier which functions as the interface between the blood supply of the mother and the child allowing the child to receive nutrients and discard waste products. The allantois becomes the umbilical cord (conduit for substances between the child and placenta) chorion - the protective membrane surrounding the child and amnion Amnion - an inner membrane surrounding the embryo and containing amniotic fluid Yolk Sac � the initial source of embryonic blood cellsThe blastocyst consists of 100 � 150 cells during its 7th day. It floats free inside the uterus for a few days before making contact with the uterine wall. Due to the menstrual cycle, the lining of the uterus is engorged with blood. If the blastocyst begins to send tendrils into the lining of the sensitized uterus, hormones will inhibit the menstrual flow. This embedding of the blastocyst (the trophoblast) is called implantation. It occurs around the 14th day after conception, marking the transition from the germinal period to the embryonic period. Embryonic Period � the second of three prenatal periods, beginning with implantation and ending when all of the basic bodily organs have developed. Once the hair-like blood vessels of the trophoblast burrow into the mother�s uterus, a connection is made with the mother�s blood system. These blood vessels become the placental barrier which functions as the interface between the blood supply of the mother and the child allowing the child to receive nutrients and discard waste products. The allantois becomes the umbilical cord (conduit for substances between the child and placenta) chorion - the protective membrane surrounding the child and amnion Amnion - an inner membrane surrounding the embryo and containing amniotic fluid Yolk Sac � the initial source of embryonic blood cells

10. Three Embryonic Layers Endoderm Innermost Becomes digestive, respiratory, internal organs (pancreas & liver) Mesoderm Center Layer Muscles, bones, circ. system Ectoderm Outermost Hair, Skin, CNS The next major change after implantation is the differentiation of the embryo into three distinct layers: Endoderm - the innermost layer of the embryo from which the inner organs develop. Mesoderm - the middle layer of the embryo from which the muscles, bones, and circulatory system develop, Ectoderm - the outer layer of the embryo from which the skin, hair, nails, and central nervous system develop.The next major change after implantation is the differentiation of the embryo into three distinct layers: Endoderm - the innermost layer of the embryo from which the inner organs develop. Mesoderm - the middle layer of the embryo from which the muscles, bones, and circulatory system develop, Ectoderm - the outer layer of the embryo from which the skin, hair, nails, and central nervous system develop.

11. Period of the Fetus Starts when all basic structures are complete Period of refinement for survival in outside world Fetal Period � the third of three prenatal periods, beginning when all the bodily organs have developed and ending with birth. This period is characterized by growth and refinement of the fetus. At the beginning of the fetal period, about 9 weeks, the fetus is about 1.5 inches long and has only the elemental forms of its organs. Age of Viability � occurring around the 26th week, this is the point at which the child�s structure is sufficiently developed to sustain life outside the womb. Fetal Period � the third of three prenatal periods, beginning when all the bodily organs have developed and ending with birth. This period is characterized by growth and refinement of the fetus. At the beginning of the fetal period, about 9 weeks, the fetus is about 1.5 inches long and has only the elemental forms of its organs. Age of Viability � occurring around the 26th week, this is the point at which the child�s structure is sufficiently developed to sustain life outside the womb.

12. Laws of Developmental Direction Cephalo-caudal Head - tail (foot) Proximo-distal Near-far Gross - fine basic - refined Laws of Developmental Direction � Generalities about what physical features or motor behaviors develop before others. The following three laws are all interrelated and help predict which characteristics will emerge relative to others. Cephalo-Caudal Law of Development � principle of developmental direction stating that development occurs from head to tail (toe) Characteristics closer to the head (eyes, nose, arms) will develop before things closer to the lower parts of the body (legs, toes) 2) The Proximo-Distal Law of Development � principle of developmental direction stating that things nearer to the center of the body (e.g., heart) develop before things that are more extreme (e.g., fingers). 3) The Gross-Fine Law of Development � principle of developmental direction stating that general, unrefined characteristics develop into specific, refined characteristics. (example: nubs which develop into hands) These laws are all interrelated. Laws of Developmental Direction � Generalities about what physical features or motor behaviors develop before others. The following three laws are all interrelated and help predict which characteristics will emerge relative to others. Cephalo-Caudal Law of Development � principle of developmental direction stating that development occurs from head to tail (toe) Characteristics closer to the head (eyes, nose, arms) will develop before things closer to the lower parts of the body (legs, toes) 2) The Proximo-Distal Law of Development � principle of developmental direction stating that things nearer to the center of the body (e.g., heart) develop before things that are more extreme (e.g., fingers). 3) The Gross-Fine Law of Development � principle of developmental direction stating that general, unrefined characteristics develop into specific, refined characteristics. (example: nubs which develop into hands) These laws are all interrelated.

13. Teratogens Substances or agents present prenatally that cause physical or psychological abnormalities Laws of developmental direction mean that timing is important Generally speaking, those having effects during embryonic development will have greater harmful outcomes Teratogen - substances present during the prenatal period, such as disease or drugs, that cause physical or psychological abnormalities. The term comes from the Greek word meaning �monster�. Different organs will be affected by teratogens present at various times. An example is rubella, which is a mild disease for an adult and a fetus; however, its effects on the embryo can be devastating. The effects of teratogens during the last months of pregnancy are frequently less severe than during the embryonic period.Teratogen - substances present during the prenatal period, such as disease or drugs, that cause physical or psychological abnormalities. The term comes from the Greek word meaning �monster�. Different organs will be affected by teratogens present at various times. An example is rubella, which is a mild disease for an adult and a fetus; however, its effects on the embryo can be devastating. The effects of teratogens during the last months of pregnancy are frequently less severe than during the embryonic period.

14. Benefogens  Coined term for agents present during prenatal development having a beneficial outcome E.G.: AZT (Zidovudine � ZDV) HIV infection Folic Acid Neural tube disorders (spina bifida) AZT has been found to offer protection to the prenatal child whose mother is infected with the AIDS virus. Its use is controversial for three reasons: 1- expense 2 � potential side-effects 3- ethical concerns about a person�s privacy rights Folic Acid � a B vitamin that is naturally present in foods (especially dried beans, green leafy vegetables,) and is necessary for the proper formation of the neural tube through which the spinal cord runs.AZT has been found to offer protection to the prenatal child whose mother is infected with the AIDS virus. Its use is controversial for three reasons: 1- expense 2 � potential side-effects 3- ethical concerns about a person�s privacy rights Folic Acid � a B vitamin that is naturally present in foods (especially dried beans, green leafy vegetables,) and is necessary for the proper formation of the neural tube through which the spinal cord runs.

15. Teratogen Categories Maternal Diseases Drugs Environmental Hazards Maternal Characteristics Teratogen - Substances present during the prenatal period such as disease or drugs that cause physical or psychological abnormalities Teratology � The study of birth defects The mother�s body may determine the potency of potential teratogens. Because of the difference in maternal reactions to various teratogenic agents, maternal systems may increase or decrease the embryo�s exposure to the teratogens. Some embryos and fetuses may be more susceptible than others to certain teratogens because of genetic factors. A List of environmental agents, rank ordered in terms of the strength of the evidence (strongest to weakest) concerning their detrimental effects: Agents Established as Behavioral Teratogens: examples: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Lead Poisoning Fetal Minamata Disease (mercury poisoning) Agents that are Probable Behavioral Teragens: examples: Fetal Anticonvulsant Syndrome (caused by anticonvulsant drugs) Cigarette Smoking Narcotics PCBs Hormones Radiation Agents Suspected of Being Behavioral Teratogens: examples: Marijuana Anesthetics Antidepressants Aspirin Anxiolytic Drugs (e.g., diazepram) Heavy Metals Industrial Solvents Maternal Infections, including rubella and AIDSTeratogen - Substances present during the prenatal period such as disease or drugs that cause physical or psychological abnormalities Teratology � The study of birth defects The mother�s body may determine the potency of potential teratogens. Because of the difference in maternal reactions to various teratogenic agents, maternal systems may increase or decrease the embryo�s exposure to the teratogens. Some embryos and fetuses may be more susceptible than others to certain teratogens because of genetic factors. A List of environmental agents, rank ordered in terms of the strength of the evidence (strongest to weakest) concerning their detrimental effects: Agents Established as Behavioral Teratogens: examples: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Lead Poisoning Fetal Minamata Disease (mercury poisoning) Agents that are Probable Behavioral Teragens: examples: Fetal Anticonvulsant Syndrome (caused by anticonvulsant drugs) Cigarette Smoking Narcotics PCBs Hormones Radiation Agents Suspected of Being Behavioral Teratogens: examples: Marijuana Anesthetics Antidepressants Aspirin Anxiolytic Drugs (e.g., diazepram) Heavy Metals Industrial Solvents Maternal Infections, including rubella and AIDS

16. Maternal Diseases Toxoplasmosis Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Rubella Genital Herpes Toxoplasmosis - a potentially serious disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondi (found in undercooked meat and cat feces) Passed to the fetus through the placenta Possible Fetal Complications: Visual defects & Blindness Hearing Loss Mental Retardation Hepatomegaly Seizures Cerebral Defects Low Birth Weight Cytomegalovirus (CMV) � A member of the herpes virus family Passed to the fetus as it goes through the birth canal of an infected mother or through the mother�s breast milk Possible fetal complications (which may appear for the next few years): Mental Retardation Hearing Loss Microcephaly Chorioretinitis Rubella � a flu-like virus which can be so damaging to the fetus during the first 16 weeks of pregnancy that universal immunization is an important preventive measure Passed to the fetus through the placenta Possible fetal complications: (during first 16 weeks after conception): Visual Defects / Blindness Hearing Loss / Deafness Cardiovascular Defects Neurological Defects Some growth retardation may occur in the third trimester Genital Herpes (HSV) � a viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus which remains in certain nerve cells causing periodic recurrences. Passed to the fetus in three ways: 1) through the uterus 2) passing through the birth canal 3) immediately after birth Possible fetal complications: Herpes Visual Defects / Blindness Cerebral Defects Toxoplasmosis - a potentially serious disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondi (found in undercooked meat and cat feces) Passed to the fetus through the placenta Possible Fetal Complications: Visual defects & Blindness Hearing Loss Mental Retardation Hepatomegaly Seizures Cerebral Defects Low Birth Weight Cytomegalovirus (CMV) � A member of the herpes virus family Passed to the fetus as it goes through the birth canal of an infected mother or through the mother�s breast milk Possible fetal complications (which may appear for the next few years): Mental Retardation Hearing Loss Microcephaly Chorioretinitis Rubella � a flu-like virus which can be so damaging to the fetus during the first 16 weeks of pregnancy that universal immunization is an important preventive measure Passed to the fetus through the placenta Possible fetal complications: (during first 16 weeks after conception): Visual Defects / Blindness Hearing Loss / Deafness Cardiovascular Defects Neurological Defects Some growth retardation may occur in the third trimester Genital Herpes (HSV) � a viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus which remains in certain nerve cells causing periodic recurrences. Passed to the fetus in three ways: 1) through the uterus 2) passing through the birth canal 3) immediately after birth Possible fetal complications: Herpes Visual Defects / Blindness Cerebral Defects

17. Drugs  Cigarette Smoking Alcohol Intake Cigarette Smoking Increases chances of: ectopic pregnancy or miscarriage Low birth weight babies (< 5.5 lbs) results from pre-term delivery and/or poor intrauterine growth Increased risk of chronic disabilities (e.g., cerebral palsy, mental retardation, learning problems) Alcohol Intake Even moderate amounts place fetus at risk of: Lower IQ Attention Deficits Learning Deficits Reduced Social Competence First Trimester exposure: skull and facial abnormalities Later in pregnancy: postnatal growth affected Another drug which (when taken during pregnancy) has devastating effects on the fetus is Accutane (commonly prescribed for acne). Doctors are required to perform pregnancy tests monthly on each patient and the patient must agree to use two forms of birth control while taking this medication. Cigarette Smoking Increases chances of: ectopic pregnancy or miscarriage Low birth weight babies (< 5.5 lbs) results from pre-term delivery and/or poor intrauterine growth Increased risk of chronic disabilities (e.g., cerebral palsy, mental retardation, learning problems) Alcohol Intake Even moderate amounts place fetus at risk of: Lower IQ Attention Deficits Learning Deficits Reduced Social Competence First Trimester exposure: skull and facial abnormalities Later in pregnancy: postnatal growth affected Another drug which (when taken during pregnancy) has devastating effects on the fetus is Accutane (commonly prescribed for acne). Doctors are required to perform pregnancy tests monthly on each patient and the patient must agree to use two forms of birth control while taking this medication.

18. Environmental Hazards Radiation Radiation The fetal brain is vulnerable to radiation exposure (especially the 8th � 15th week of pregnancy) Effects of radiation may included: Decrease in IQ scores Impaired school performance Susceptibility to seizures Changes in the occurrence of major features of physical development Radiation The fetal brain is vulnerable to radiation exposure (especially the 8th � 15th week of pregnancy) Effects of radiation may included: Decrease in IQ scores Impaired school performance Susceptibility to seizures Changes in the occurrence of major features of physical development

19. Maternal Characteristics Maternal Age Malnutrition Effect in Last Trimester Nutritional demands of late fetus is greatest Maternal Age is an influential factor in assessing the likely well-being of her fetus. Long-term consequences of teenage mother births: Increased high school dropout rate, unemployment, and welfare dependence Negative medical consequences (including increased risk of severe birth-related complications) Lack of prenatal care resulting in: (1) low birth weight babies(2) increased risk of birth defects (3) developmental delays Some of these effects can be moderated if the teenage father continues to be involved with the mother and child Malnutrition Phagocytosis - process used by blastula to ingest nutrients, involving the absorption of nutrients through the cell membrane. It is an inefficient process and growth is slow until the blastula implants in the uterus. Osmosis � The flowing of substances from a location of high concentration to one where there is low concentration Maternal Age is an influential factor in assessing the likely well-being of her fetus. Long-term consequences of teenage mother births: Increased high school dropout rate, unemployment, and welfare dependence Negative medical consequences (including increased risk of severe birth-related complications) Lack of prenatal care resulting in: (1) low birth weight babies(2) increased risk of birth defects (3) developmental delays Some of these effects can be moderated if the teenage father continues to be involved with the mother and child Malnutrition Phagocytosis - process used by blastula to ingest nutrients, involving the absorption of nutrients through the cell membrane. It is an inefficient process and growth is slow until the blastula implants in the uterus. Osmosis � The flowing of substances from a location of high concentration to one where there is low concentration

20. Reproductive Risk versus Caretaking Casualty Reproductive risks - pre & perinatal events Impaired - unimpaired Caretaking Casualty - postnatal events nonfacilitative - facilitative environment vulnerable - nonvulnerable organism Reproductive Risks � Exposure to teratogens or other nonfacilitative conditions present prior to, or during, birth that are harmful to development. Examples include genetic disorders or teratogens before birth and anoxia at birth. It is a linear model (if something happens at A, it causes a difficulty at B) Continuum of Caretaking Casualty - the influence of the environmental dimensions mediated by the caretaker. This theoretical perspective suggests that interactions of environmental (caretaking), genetic, and historical bases are crucial to developmental outcomes. It is a transactional model. Examples would include a mother�s exposure to high concentrations of alcohol (nonfacilitative environment) producing detrimental effects. The child is impaired on the organismic dimension. However, facilitative events (e.g., sensitive child rearing, remedial education) can eradicate the early nonfacilitative events.Reproductive Risks � Exposure to teratogens or other nonfacilitative conditions present prior to, or during, birth that are harmful to development. Examples include genetic disorders or teratogens before birth and anoxia at birth. It is a linear model (if something happens at A, it causes a difficulty at B) Continuum of Caretaking Casualty - the influence of the environmental dimensions mediated by the caretaker. This theoretical perspective suggests that interactions of environmental (caretaking), genetic, and historical bases are crucial to developmental outcomes. It is a transactional model. Examples would include a mother�s exposure to high concentrations of alcohol (nonfacilitative environment) producing detrimental effects. The child is impaired on the organismic dimension. However, facilitative events (e.g., sensitive child rearing, remedial education) can eradicate the early nonfacilitative events.

21. Postnatal Development The Remarkable Newborn Neonate � the technical term for the newborn during the first two weeks of life.Neonate � the technical term for the newborn during the first two weeks of life.

22. Assessing the Neonate Apgar Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale NBAS-R 28 behavioral 18 Reflexes 7 Areas: Habituation, social interaction, motor, state organization, state regulation, autonomic system, reflexes Apgar - developed by Dr. Virginia Apgar in 1953. It is administered at 1 minute after birth and again at 5 minutes after birth. A perfect score is 10 see table on page 126 A = Appearance color should be completely pink P = Pulse heart rate should be adequate (over 100 beats per minute) G = Grimace - reflex irritability vigorous cries or withdrawal A = Activity muscle tone should be strong, an active motion R = Respiration a good, strong cry Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale � Revised (NBAS-R) developed by Dr. Berry Brazelton in 1973 and revised in 2000 A detailed look at the child�s physical and behavioral functioning shortly after birth Used to assess behavioral capabilities of newborns up to 20 days of age Looks at 28 behaviors and 18 reflexes in these 7 areas: Habituation Social Interaction Motor State Organization Reflexes State Regulation Autonomic System Apgar - developed by Dr. Virginia Apgar in 1953. It is administered at 1 minute after birth and again at 5 minutes after birth. A perfect score is 10 see table on page 126 A = Appearance color should be completely pink P = Pulse heart rate should be adequate (over 100 beats per minute) G = Grimace - reflex irritability vigorous cries or withdrawal A = Activity muscle tone should be strong, an active motion R = Respiration a good, strong cry Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale � Revised (NBAS-R) developed by Dr. Berry Brazelton in 1973 and revised in 2000 A detailed look at the child�s physical and behavioral functioning shortly after birth Used to assess behavioral capabilities of newborns up to 20 days of age Looks at 28 behaviors and 18 reflexes in these 7 areas: Habituation Social Interaction Motor State Organization Reflexes State Regulation Autonomic System

23. The Ability to Respond to the Environment Sensory Capability - Receptors vision hearing smelling tasting feeling Sensation - firing of receptors by stimulus Perception - interpretation of sensory input Two capabilities are necessary to respond to the environment: Sensory - The ability to detect changes in the environment Behavior - the ability to respond Each of the senses involves a relationship between an event in the environment (a stimulus) and a specific sensory receptor. The receptors are stimulus specific (meaning that only certain stimuli will fire them). We have certain cells that serve the role of specialized receptors and are sensitive to particular events in our environment. Such as: Rods � cells located in the periphery of the retina which respond to small changes in light Sensation � the stimulation of sensory receptors and their connections to neurons traveling to the sensory center in the central nervous system. It is the detection of the presence of stimuli. Perception � the organized response to a stimulus. It is an integration of a sensation with the activation of appropriate response systems. Two capabilities are necessary to respond to the environment: Sensory - The ability to detect changes in the environment Behavior - the ability to respond Each of the senses involves a relationship between an event in the environment (a stimulus) and a specific sensory receptor. The receptors are stimulus specific (meaning that only certain stimuli will fire them). We have certain cells that serve the role of specialized receptors and are sensitive to particular events in our environment. Such as: Rods � cells located in the periphery of the retina which respond to small changes in light Sensation � the stimulation of sensory receptors and their connections to neurons traveling to the sensory center in the central nervous system. It is the detection of the presence of stimuli. Perception � the organized response to a stimulus. It is an integration of a sensation with the activation of appropriate response systems.

24. Nativism versus Empiricism Nativism - innate - nature Empiricism - experience - nurture Behavioral Systems Approach � Perception is due to both

25. How Do We Know the Sensory/Perceptual Capabilities of the Infant? Common to all methods - Change in Behavior correlated with change in Stimulus

26. Methods of Perceptual Research Visual Preference (Fantz) Visual Cliff (E. Gibson & Walk) Habituation-Dishabituation Operant Conditioning Procedures

27. Visual Preference Looking Chamber Reflection of stimulus on cornea The �Basic Problem� Change in behavior - time gazing Change in stimulus - different visual stimuli Limitations - The Coke vs. Pepsi Problem There may be perception even though there is no preference

28. Looking Chamber - Fantz

29. Visual Cliff Depth Perception �Deep� vs. �Shallow� end Mother entices the child to crawl Limitations Child or kid must be ambulatory Overcome by monitoring heart rate of babies suspended over each end (Campos)

30. Visual Cliff - E. Gibson

31. Habituation-Dishabituation Babies can�t suck & listen (watch) at same time. Establish sucking response Disrupt it with repeated stimulus (e.g., �Pa�) With repetition of Pa, child habituates sucking returns A new stimulus (e.g., �Ba�) is introduced If child perceives difference between Ba & Pa, sucking stops - Dishabituation

32. Operant Procedures Behaviors which are reinforced become more frequent Researcher reinforces response to one stimulus and not to another If child perceives difference between stimuli than will respond more to reinforced stimulus Many procedures used to assess neonatal perceptual capabilities involve operant conditioning (Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1992a; see Chapter 6) Operant Learning - An enduring behavioral change produced as a function of the interaction between the individual�s behavior and his/her environment. It refers to a class of behavior controlled (at least in part) by its consequences. Stimulus � an environmental change or event that has a functional relationship to a particular behavior. Stimuli may be presented one at a time or simultaneously. Response � an action that an individual takes or a change that an individual makes. The responses used by researchers include: head turning; sucking a nipple at a high or low rate; or kicking a mobile Reinforcer - a stimulus that strengthens a behavior that it immediately follows. Reinforcers for the neonate include: the mother�s voice; visual stimulation; and a recording of the intrauterine heartbeat. Many procedures used to assess neonatal perceptual capabilities involve operant conditioning (Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1992a; see Chapter 6) Operant Learning - An enduring behavioral change produced as a function of the interaction between the individual�s behavior and his/her environment. It refers to a class of behavior controlled (at least in part) by its consequences. Stimulus � an environmental change or event that has a functional relationship to a particular behavior. Stimuli may be presented one at a time or simultaneously. Response � an action that an individual takes or a change that an individual makes. The responses used by researchers include: head turning; sucking a nipple at a high or low rate; or kicking a mobile Reinforcer - a stimulus that strengthens a behavior that it immediately follows. Reinforcers for the neonate include: the mother�s voice; visual stimulation; and a recording of the intrauterine heartbeat.

33. Operant Conditioning Procedures Perception Responses: e.g., head turning, sucking, kicking Reinforcers: e.g., mother�s voice, milk, visual stimuli, heartbeat. Memory & Cognition Kicking mobile in presence of an X produces conjugate reinforcement In later testing immediate kicking when X is present shows recall of contingency (remembering) Infants placed face up in a crib, viewing an overhead mobile, kicked their legs to produce, as a consequence, a proportional movement of the mobile (Rovee-Collier and associates) The more they kicked, the more the mobile twirled. This correlation of the magnitude of the reinforcer to the magnitude of the response is called conjugate reinforcement. During the conjugate reinforcement phase, the mobile�s movement was activated by a ribbon connected from the infant�s ankle to the mobile. A stimulus cue, such as an X, was used to signal that the conjugate reinforcement contingency was in effect. Remembering was tested by returning the child to the testing condition after different time periods. Infants immediately responded to the cued stimulus by kicking, indicating that they had remembered the stimulus. This conditioning procedure facilitated the delineation of short- and long-term memory processes, indexed by retention of cued responding, after delays of hours, days, and weeks.Infants placed face up in a crib, viewing an overhead mobile, kicked their legs to produce, as a consequence, a proportional movement of the mobile (Rovee-Collier and associates) The more they kicked, the more the mobile twirled. This correlation of the magnitude of the reinforcer to the magnitude of the response is called conjugate reinforcement. During the conjugate reinforcement phase, the mobile�s movement was activated by a ribbon connected from the infant�s ankle to the mobile. A stimulus cue, such as an X, was used to signal that the conjugate reinforcement contingency was in effect. Remembering was tested by returning the child to the testing condition after different time periods. Infants immediately responded to the cued stimulus by kicking, indicating that they had remembered the stimulus. This conditioning procedure facilitated the delineation of short- and long-term memory processes, indexed by retention of cued responding, after delays of hours, days, and weeks.

34. Operant Conditioning Procedures Early Perception Dr. Seuss passages read by mothers in last trimester. Infants suck to produce mother-read passages. Early Socialization Infant social referencing. Studies suggest that in utero auditory experiences can affect postnatal behavior and learning in human infants. (Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1992a) How operant learning has been used to study infant perception and learning can be illustrated by the work of DeCasper and associates. They demonstrated the impact of systematic prenatal auditory exposure on postnatal learning. Mothers were instructed to repeatedly read aloud specific stories during the last 3 months of pregnancy Their newborns exhibited increased non-nutritive sucking to produce the acoustic properties of a speech passage their mothers had recited. The newborns preferred the passages their mothers had read, indicating that the maternal passages were reinforcers. In another study, the maternal voice, to which the fetus was exposed during gestation, was found to function as a more effective reinforcer for the newborn than did a stranger�s voice. Infant social referencing (i.e., being cued by the mother�s facial expressions) and subsequent behavior can result from operant learning generated by positive and aversive contingencies for differentially cued infant behavior in ambiguous contexts. ((Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1992d) Studies suggest that in utero auditory experiences can affect postnatal behavior and learning in human infants. (Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1992a) How operant learning has been used to study infant perception and learning can be illustrated by the work of DeCasper and associates. They demonstrated the impact of systematic prenatal auditory exposure on postnatal learning. Mothers were instructed to repeatedly read aloud specific stories during the last 3 months of pregnancy Their newborns exhibited increased non-nutritive sucking to produce the acoustic properties of a speech passage their mothers had recited. The newborns preferred the passages their mothers had read, indicating that the maternal passages were reinforcers. In another study, the maternal voice, to which the fetus was exposed during gestation, was found to function as a more effective reinforcer for the newborn than did a stranger�s voice. Infant social referencing (i.e., being cued by the mother�s facial expressions) and subsequent behavior can result from operant learning generated by positive and aversive contingencies for differentially cued infant behavior in ambiguous contexts. ((Gewirtz & Pelaez-Nogueras, 1992d)

35. Perceptual Abilities as Universal Behaviors Some abilities are hard wired Examples Detect light from dark Detect horizontal from vertical Detect sound (phoneme) boundaries

36. Reflexes as Universal Behaviors Hard - Wired Present at birth Do not need much experience Unlearned thus �Unconditioned� Reflex is not a behavior but stimulus-behavior relationship The Universal I behaviors we call reflexes comprise much of the initial behaviors in the newborn�s repertoire. At birth, nearly all person-environment interactions are reflexive ones. Reflexes start us on the path of developmental change, but they are very inflexible. Humans are characterized by their ability to change in relation to their environment, but reflexes are hard-wired and inflexible.The Universal I behaviors we call reflexes comprise much of the initial behaviors in the newborn�s repertoire. At birth, nearly all person-environment interactions are reflexive ones. Reflexes start us on the path of developmental change, but they are very inflexible. Humans are characterized by their ability to change in relation to their environment, but reflexes are hard-wired and inflexible.

37. Reflex as Stimulus-Behavior Relationship UnConditioned = Unlearned Stimulus - environmental event Behavior = Response - action of organism UCS UCR

38. Examples of Reflexes Consummatory Defensive Social There are certain behaviors (or responses) that we are born with. All normal newborns possess these reflexes. A reflex is a relationship between an environmental event (the stimulus) and a behavior (the response). The behavior is an unlearned, or unconditioned, response.There are certain behaviors (or responses) that we are born with. All normal newborns possess these reflexes. A reflex is a relationship between an environmental event (the stimulus) and a behavior (the response). The behavior is an unlearned, or unconditioned, response.

39. Consummatory Reflexes(Watson (1920) eliciting rooting reflex) Search J. B. Watson demonstrates the rooting reflex (circa 1920)J. B. Watson demonstrates the rooting reflex (circa 1920)

40. Defensive ReflexesWatson (1920) eliciting Babinski reflex) J. B. Watson demonstrates the Babinski reflex (circa 1920). (Slide #41)J. B. Watson demonstrates the Babinski reflex (circa 1920). (Slide #41)

41. How Do Reflexes Change? 1. Reflexes May Stay the Same 2. Reflexes May Disappear 3. Reflexes May Be Elicited by New Stimuli - Respondent Conditioning 4. Reflexes May be Elaborated into New Behaviors - Operant Conditioning

42. End of Chapter 4 DeleteDelete