Emerging Forms of Violence: Intimate Partner Abuse, Stalking, Child Abuse, Pedophilia, Hate Crimes, Terrorism, and Multi

1. Chapter 11 Emerging Forms of Violence Lee Ayers-Schlosser, Southern Oregon University

2. Chapter Objectives (1 of 2) • Explain why some forms of violent crime are considered “emerging.” • Define the various forms of emerging violent crimes, including intimate partner abuse, stalking, child abuse, pedophilia, hate crimes, terrorism, and multicide. • Explain the theory of intergenerational transmission of violence and describe how it explains intimate partner abuse.

3. Chapter Objectives (2 of 2) • Describe the criminal justice response to the various forms of emerging violent crimes. • List the categories of hate crimes and understand the specific motivations behind the different types.

4. You Are the Criminologist Crime Scene Investigation • What would be one avenue for investigation of this particular homicide case? • What would you consider important considering the victimology of the victim(s)? (See page 304 in text)

5. Introduction (1 of 2) • Crimes emerging only in the sense of our increasing awareness of them • Less common forms of violence • Domestic violence • Pedophilia • Hate crimes • Terrorism • Multicides

6. Introduction (2 of 2) • Do not share a common thread of motivation • Not easily profiled • Increasingly in need of social control

7. Domestic Violence (1 of 2) • Difficult to control • Occurs outside of the public eye • Among the least reported crimes • Fear of reprisal • Not wanting the abuser to get in trouble • Not defining the behavior as abusive • Not wanting others to find out • Feeling as though nothing can be done

8. Domestic Violence (2 of 2) • Types • Intimate partner abuse • Stalking • Child abuse

9. Intimate Partner Abuse (1 of 5) • Includes • Spousal abuse • Child abuse • Elder abuse • Sibling abuse • Abuse of any current or former heterosexual/homosexual intimate partners

10. Intimate Partner Abuse (2 of 5) • Historically called “domestic abuse” • Assumed to be synonymous with spousal abuse • Criticism: ignores many categories of abuse • Forms • Physical battering and intimidation • Sexual battering • Psychological battering • Destruction of property and pets • Any other aggressive act towards an intimate or former intimate

11. Intimate Partner Abuse (3 of 5) • Estimates • National Violence Against Women victimization survey • 22% of women • 7% of men • Bureau of Justice: more than 960,000 violent victimizations of women • Current decline • Incidents or reporting of those incidents?

12. Intimate Partner Abuse (4 of 5) • Racial, ethnicity, and class differences • Exists across all racial, ethnic, and class lines • African-Americans and lower-class people overrepresented in official statistics • Racial and class bias on the part of law enforcement and the criminal justice system • Lack of access to better resources

13. Intimate Partner Abuse (5 of 5) • Patterns in intimate partner abuse • Controlling behaviors • Fear and intimidation • Manipulation • Excessive rule making • Isolation

14. Theories of Intimate Partner Abuse (1 of 3) • Intergenerational transmission of violence • Observed or experienced childhood violence increases the likelihood of intimate partner abuse or victimization as an adult • Supported by research

15. Theories of Intimate Partner Abuse (2 of 3) • Social stress • Stress caused by lack of access to • Money • Housing • Education • Employment • Proposes that violence occurs mainly in low-income families • Not inclusive explanation

16. Theories of Intimate Partner Abuse (3 of 3) • Feminist theories • Abuse arises from men’s power over women • Men have been socialized to be aggressive and use violence to keep women in line • Intimate partner abuse more prevalent in patriarchal societies • Criticism: cannot explain female same-sex violent relationships or female violence towards males

17. The Criminal Justice Response toIntimate Partner Abuse (1 of 2) • Historically, laws condoned intimate partner abuse • Church law • Napoleonic Civil Code • British Common Law “rule of thumb” • Puritan policy against wife beating • Belief that intimate partner abuse is a personal matter • Minimal action by criminal justice system

18. The Criminal Justice Response toIntimate Partner Abuse (2 of 2) • Modern response • Influences • Pressure from feminists and battered women’s advocates • Lawsuits against criminal justice personnel • New research concerning police response • Mandatory and presumptive arrest policies • Continues to be room for improvement

19. Stalking • Definition • Willful, repeated, and malicious following, harassing, or threatening of another person • Statistics • 200,000 to 1.4 million annually in the United States

20. Typologies of Stalking (1 of 3) • Michael Zona • Erotomanic • Believe they are passionately loved by their stalking victims • Often directed at celebrities • Love obsessional • Often delusional about other issues in their lives • Stalk people they do not know • Simple obsessional • Prior relationship with their victims • Start stalking when relationship ends or they perceive some sort of mistreatment

21. Typologies of Stalking (2 of 3) • Roberts and Dziegielewski • Nuisance stalker • Domestic stalker • Erotomanic stalker • Delusional stalker

22. Typologies of Stalking (3 of 3) • R.M. Holmes • Celebrity stalker • Lust stalker • Hit stalker • Love-scorned stalker • Domestic stalker • Political stalker

23. Relationships Between Stalkers and Their Victims • Strangers • Acquaintances • Intimates or former intimates (domestic stalking)

24. Domestic Stalking • Most common form (80%) • High correlation with intimate partner abuse (80%) • More likely to threaten or be violent • More likely to make harassing contact • Stalking often precipitated by a single event • Separation assault

25. Stalking Behaviors (1 of 3) • Coleman • Violent behavior stalkers • Breaking in to victim’s home or car • Threatened, attempted, or did physical harm to the victim • Physically harmed or threatened to harm themselves • Damaged property of victim’s new partner • Harassing behavior stalkers • Called the victim at home, work, or school • Followed or watched the victim • Came unwanted to the home, work, or school of the victim • Sent unwanted gifts, letters, or photos

26. Stalking Behaviors (2 of 3) • Meloy • Sending of aggressive letters • Unwanted following • Property damage • Annoying phone calls • Assaults • Gift giving

27. Stalking Behaviors (3 of 3) • Burgess • Written and verbal communications • Unsolicited and unrecognized claims of romantic involvement • Surveillance • Harassment • Loitering • Intense fear and psychological distress to the victim

28. Cyberstalking • Forms • E-mail stalking • Internet stalking • Computer stalking • Anonymity of the perpetrators • Tracing suspects very difficult

29. Motivations for Stalking • Control • Obsession • Jealousy • Revenge • Anger

30. The Criminal Justice Response to Stalking • Anti-stalking statutes • Domestic violence laws

31. Child Abuse (1 of 5) • Forms • Nonaccidental physical injury • Sexual abuse or exploitation • Emotional or psychological injury • Neglect or maltreatment

32. Child Abuse (2 of 5) • Prevalence difficult to determine • Many victims too young to communicate • Embarrassed/afraid to report • Reluctance to get involved in a family matter

33. Child Abuse (3 of 5) • 1995 survey • 1.8 million adolescents sexually assaulted • 3.9 million adolescents physically assaulted • Girls more likely to report sexual assaults • Boys more likely to report physical assaults • Official statistics • Most likely committed by acquaintances (63% of reported cases) • Parents and other caretakers (19%) • Strangers (10%)

34. Child Abuse (4 of 5) • Increases risk of • Aggressive behavior • PTSD • Conduct disorders • Anxiety • Depression • Suicide • Intergenerational transmission

35. Child Abuse (5 of 5) • Theories of explanation • Perpetrator experienced or observed violence • Presence of unrelated adults in the home • Isolation and alienation

36. The Criminal Justice Response to Child Abuse • Historically, children regarded as property of their parents • Child labor laws • Juvenile court system • Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (1974) • Federal funding at the state level for prevention and response to child abuse • Helped establish child abuse statutes in which parents may be prosecuted for abusing their children

37. Pedophilia (1 of 3) • Definition: unnatural desire for sexual relations with children • Categories • Fixated pedophile (never matured) • Regressed pedophile (response to stress) • Mysoped (connection between fatal sexual violence and personal gratification)

38. Pedophilia (2 of 3) • Age and sex specific • Common backgrounds • Not close to their fathers • Came from homes with alcohol problems • Weak verbal skills • Close feelings with their mothers • Derive sexual gratification from child pornography

39. Pedophilia (3 of 3) • Treatment of pedophiles • More difficult to treat than other sex offenders • Statewide sex offender registries • Inform the community • Act as a deterrent • No evidence yet of effect on recidivism • Physiological assessment of sexual arousal

40. Law Enforcement Approach to Pedophilia • Focus on ways to predict pedophiliac behavior • Fighting trafficking of minors • Interdisciplinary task force • Vigorous investigation by the criminal justice system

41. Hate Crimes (1 of 5) • Definition • Intentional selection of a victim based on race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation • Motivated by prejudice • The National Hate Crime Law (1993)

42. Hate Crimes (2 of 5) • Statistics (Uniform Crime Report) • 7,489 hate crime incidents in 2003 • < 50% race • 18% religion • 17% sexual orientation • 13% ethnicity/national orientation • 1% disability

43. Hate Crimes (3 of 5) • Types of hate crimes • Thrill-seeking hate crimes • Reactive hate crimes • Mission hate crimes

44. Hate Crimes (4 of 5) • Hate groups • Direct violence against an undesirable group of people • Often believe that they are chosen people doing the work of God in their perpetration of violence

45. Hate Crimes (5 of 5) • Hate groups • Ku Klux Klan • Skinheads • Identity churches

46. Ku Klux Klan • Founded 1865 • Targeted African-Americans • Ku Klux Klan Act (1871) • Established severe penalties • Forced the Klan to operate in a more clandestine fashion

47. Identity Churches • White supremacy • Believe they are the chosen people • Superior to all other races • Hatred and violence towards Jews • Early leader—Dr. Wesley Swift

48. Skinheads • Racist, political organization • Not all skinheads engage in hate crimes • Ultimate goal: eradicate target minorities from the face of the earth to ensure white power and white supremacy • Recruitment up since September 11, 2001

49. Responding to Hate Crimes • Hate crime legislation • Substantive crimes • Sentence enhancements • Reporting statutes • Justifications for creating specialized responses • Special effects on the victim • Deleterious effects on communities • Expression of bias separable from the crime

50. Terrorism • Definition: The premeditated, deliberate, systematic murder, mayhem, and threatening of the innocent to create fear and intimidation in order to gain a political or tactical advantage, usually to influence an audience.