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INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE, INDUSTRIAL POLICY, EXTERNAL TRADE AND CAPITAL FLOWS

INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE, INDUSTRIAL POLICY, EXTERNAL TRADE AND CAPITAL FLOWS. Changes in industrial structure during transition Export orientation versus import substitution Industrial policy

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INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE, INDUSTRIAL POLICY, EXTERNAL TRADE AND CAPITAL FLOWS

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  1. INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE, INDUSTRIAL POLICY, EXTERNAL TRADE AND CAPITAL FLOWS Changes in industrial structure during transition Export orientation versus import substitution Industrial policy Directions (support of exports versus imports, support in line with comparative advantages versus support defying comparative advantages Forms (tariffs, exchange rate protectionism, subsidies, credits, government purchases) Structure of trade Commodity structure Geographic structure FDI Capital flows Balance of payments

  2. Differences in productivity by sectors of the economy

  3. Industrial companies with largest sales in 2005-06 (Source: Expert 400)

  4. Import tariffs - impact on growth • We tried to find a GDP per capita threshold for the 19th century using data from (Irwin, 2002), but failed. The best equation linking growth rates in 1870-1913 to GDP per capita and tariff rates (27 countries, two periods – 1870-90 and 1890-1913 – 54 observations overall) is: • Regression for 1870-1913 • GROWTH = 0.24 + 0.04*Y – 0.0004*Y2 – 0.05*T + 0.001*T2 + 0.0006*Y*T, • Where Y – GDP per capita in 1870 or 1890 respectively, T – average tariff rates • (R2adj. = 33%, all coefficients significant at 11% level or less).

  5. Data on corruption • Corruption perception index (CPI) for 1980-85 – these estimates are available from Transparency International for over 50 countries • CPI = 2.3 + 0,07*Ycap75us, • N=45, R2 =59%, T-statistics for Ycap75 coefficient is 9. 68. • CORRres = 10 – [CPI – (2.3 + 0.07*Ycap75us)] = 12.3 – CPI + 0.07*Ycap75us

  6. Data on investment climate • RISK84-90 – average investment risk index for 1984-90, varies from 0 to 100, the higher, the better investment climate • RISK = 62.1 + 0.19Ycap75us, N= 88, R2=36%, T-statistics for Ycap75us coefficient is 3.95. • RISKres = RISK84-90 – (62.1 + 0.19Ycap75us) +100

  7. Import tariffs - impact on growth. • GROWTH=CONST.+CONTR.VAR.+Tincr.(0.06– 0.004Ycap75us–0.004CORRpos–0.005T) • GROWTH, is the annual average growth rate of GDP per capita in 1975-99, • the control variables are population growth rates during the period and net fuel imports (to control for “resource curse”), • T – average import tariff as a % of import in 1975-99, • Tincr. – increase in the level of this tariff (average tariff in 1980-99 as a % of average tariff in 1971-80), • Ycap75us – PPP GDP per capita in 1975 as a % of the US level, • CORR pos – positive residual corruption in 1975, calculated as explained earlier. • R2=40%, N=39, all coefficients are significant at 5% level, except the last one (33%), but exclusion of the last variable (a multiple of T by Tincr.) does not ruin the regression and the coefficients do not change much.

  8. Import tariffs and accumulation of FOREX- impact on growth • If import duties are included into growth regressions without the interaction terms with GDP per capita and/or a measure of institutional strength (corruption), the coefficient on import duties is not significant: • But when interaction terms are included, all coefficients become statistically significant. Here is an additional equation that give similar thresholds on GDP per capita and corruption: • GROWTH=CONST+CONTR.VAR+T(0.05–0.005Ycap75us–0.007Rpol) • where Rpol is the indicator of the accumulation of foreign exchange reserves computed as explained later, in the third section, N=40, R2=40, all coefficients significant at 8% level or less, control variables – positive residual corruption and population growth rates.

  9. Import tariffs and accumulation of FOREX- impact on growth GROWTH=CONST.+CONTR.VAR.+ + T(0.001RISK–0.0038Ycap75us)+ + Rpol(0.23-0.014T), where N=48, R2 = 46, all coefficients significant at 7% or less, control variables – PPP GDP in 1975 and population growth rate. • Here Rpol is the residual from the equation linking the increase in reserves to GDP ratio to (1) average trade/GDP ratio, (2) increase in trade/GDP ratio, (3) external debt/GDP ratio and (4) debt service/GDP ratio.

  10. Import tariffs - impact on growth • GROWTH=CONST+CONTR.VAR.+ + T(0.005RISK–0.002Ycap75us–0.3) • (N= 87, R2 =42, all coefficients significant at 10% level or less, control variables are population growth rates, population density and total population). • The equation implies that for a poor country (say, with the PPP GDP per capita of 20% of the US level or less) import duties stimulate growth only when investment climate is not very bad (RISK > 50%) – the expression in brackets in this case becomes positive.

  11. Medium term perspective – since 1949: Beijing consensus versus Washington consensus The catch-up development of China since 1949 looks extremely impressive: • not only the growth rates in China were higher than elsewhere after the reforms (1979-onward), • even before the reforms (1949-79), despite temporary declines during the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese development was quite successful.

  12. Since 1979 Chinese economic model is based on: • Gradual democratization and the preservation of the one party rule in China allowed to avoid institutional collapse, whereas in Russia institutional capacity was adversely affected by the shock-type transition to democracy (Polterovich, Popov, 2006); • Gradual market reforms – “dual track price system” (co-existence of the market economy and centrally planned economy for over a decade), “growing out of socialism” (no privatization until 1996, but creation of the private sector from scratch), non-conventional forms of ownership and control (TVEs); • Industrial policy – strong import substitution policy in 1949-78 and strong export-oriented industrial policy afterwards with such tools as tariff protectionism (in the 1980s import tariffs were as high as up to 40% of the value of import) and export subsidies (Polterovich, Popov, 2005); • Macroeconomic policy – not only in traditional sense (fiscal and monetary policy), but also exchange rate policy: rapid accumulation of foreign exchange reserves in China (despite positive current and capital account) led to the undervaluation of yuan, whereas Russian ruble became overvalued in 1996-98 and more recently – in 2000-07. Undervaluation of the exchange rate via accumulation of reserves became in fact the major tool of export-oriented industrial policy (Polterovich, Popov, 2004).

  13. Actual sophistication of exports as compared to predicted one (based on GDP per capita) is very informative for explaining variations in growth rates among countries Dani Rodrik. WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT CHINA’S EXPORTS?Harvard University, January 2006

  14. Vietnam – export oriented development

  15. Until recently Chinese import tariffs were extremely high

  16. Ratio of Russian domestic energy prices to world prices, %

  17. Domestic energy prices in $ terms

  18. Energy efficiency and relative fuel prices

  19. Trade flows and trade balances for the republics, 1988, as a percentage of GNP a (Exports+Imports): (2xGNP), at domestic prices, assuming the same GNP/NMP ratios for the republics as for the USSR as a whole. Domestic trade is trade with the rest of the Union. Foreign trade is trade with the rest of the world. b Estimates of the balance of tourist trade are shown in brackets. Source: Stabilization, Liberalization and Devolution: Assessment of the Economic Situation and Reform Process in the Soviet Union. A Report, prepared by Commission of the European Communities. December 1990, p. 173. (Data is derived from official Soviet statistics); Narodnoye Khozyaistvo SSSR v 1989 godu (National Economy of the USSR in 1989). Moscow, 1990, p. 638.

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