Slide 1:Peter Flachsbart, Ph.D., AICP Associate Professor Department of Urban and Regional Planning University of Hawaii at Manoa

Slide 3:What is an Integrated Approach? An integrated approach requires consideration of each of the components shown in this slide and how they affect each other. An integrated approach requires consideration of each of the components shown in this slide and how they affect each other.

Slide 4:Three Major Periods of AQM This slides summarizes three major periods of air quality management (AQM). The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 and 1977 belong to the first period and the 1990 amendments ushered in the second period. Global climate change has ushered in a third period and triggered a broader focus. REFER TO SLIDE.This slides summarizes three major periods of air quality management (AQM). The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 and 1977 belong to the first period and the 1990 amendments ushered in the second period. Global climate change has ushered in a third period and triggered a broader focus. REFER TO SLIDE.

Slide 5:Urbanization in Asia Asia has 10 mega-cities (> 10 million people) or 50% of the world’s mega-cities. By 2020, 1 of every 2 people will live in a city in Asia. Asia has giant urban agglomerations (Delhi, Jakarta, Manila). In Delhi and Manila, car population doubles in size every 7 years; growth of two-wheelers is even more rapid.

Slide 6:Bangkok

Slide 7:Manila’s Unique Modes of Transport

Slide 8:Mobile sources contribute over 60-80% of urban air pollution in developing countries. Many cities have high levels of traffic congestion, accidents and air pollution, because of rapid growth in motor vehicle populations. Long life of vehicles, slow turn-over of fleet, many old vehicles without emission controls. Fuel quality and fuel alternatives: Many countries converting to unleaded gasoline. Photochemical smog potential may be increased in the transitional period Mobile Sources in Developing Countries

Slide 9:Air Pollution Terminology To understand the control of air pollution, one must see the entire pathway from sources of air pollution to the health effects of exposure. Measurement and control of air pollution can occur at any number of places along the pathway.To understand the control of air pollution, one must see the entire pathway from sources of air pollution to the health effects of exposure. Measurement and control of air pollution can occur at any number of places along the pathway.

Slide 11:Mobile-Source Air Pollutants Aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, the xylenes, and the trimethyl-benzenes) Carbon monoxide (CO) Lead (Pb) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Ozone(O3) Particulate matter (PM) Sulfur oxides (SOx), sulfuric acids and reduced sulfur compounds Here are several air pollutants commonly associated with mobile sources such as automobiles, trucks, buses, and motorcycles. The focus of my talk will be on carbon monoxide primarily because the earliest portable exposure monitors were developed for CO. Also, CO is often viewed as an indicator of roadway emissions that are relatively stable in the atmosphere. For example, CO concentrations are highly correlated with concentrations of air pollutants such as benzene, black carbon, and certain ultra-fine particles (National Research Council, 2003).Here are several air pollutants commonly associated with mobile sources such as automobiles, trucks, buses, and motorcycles. The focus of my talk will be on carbon monoxide primarily because the earliest portable exposure monitors were developed for CO. Also, CO is often viewed as an indicator of roadway emissions that are relatively stable in the atmosphere. For example, CO concentrations are highly correlated with concentrations of air pollutants such as benzene, black carbon, and certain ultra-fine particles (National Research Council, 2003).

Slide 12: Factors Affecting Tailpipe Emissions • Motor vehicle population which is affected by population and economic growth • Exhaust emission standards, motor vehicle fuel technologies, inspection and maintenance (I/M) programs • How people travel (e.g., by walking, biking, motorcycle, automobile, truck, bus, rail, etc.) • Travel distance which is affected by land use patterns, density, and the social and economic characteristics of trip-makers

Slide 13:Elements of a Successful I/M Program This slide shows elements of a successful inspection and maintenance (I/M) program.This slide shows elements of a successful inspection and maintenance (I/M) program.

Slide 14:Research Question Can periodic measurements of personal exposure to mobile-source air pollutants over time be used to assess the effectiveness of motor vehicle emission control programs?

Slide 15:Exposure to Air Pollution An ‘exposure’ to an air pollutant occurs when ‘a person comes in contact with the pollutant’ in ambient air and in various microenvironments. Exposure = f (air pollutant concentration and duration of exposure). Exposures are typically reported as average concentrations measured over a specified time period (e.g., while commuting in traffic).

Slide 16:Individual Exposure as a Function of Time This slide shows an individual’s exposure as a function of time. Any point on the line represents an instantaneous concentration which varies over time. The area in black represents an integrated exposure between two points in time. For example, first point in time (t)o may represent the start of a trip by motor vehicle and the second point in time (t1) may represent the end of the trip. This slide shows an individual’s exposure as a function of time. Any point on the line represents an instantaneous concentration which varies over time. The area in black represents an integrated exposure between two points in time. For example, first point in time (t)o may represent the start of a trip by motor vehicle and the second point in time (t1) may represent the end of the trip.

Slide 17:Approaches for Measuring Personal Exposure Direct Ordinary people use personal monitors to measure exposure to air pollutants while performing their daily activities and keep a diary of time spent doing those activities. Indirect Technicians use personal monitors to measure air pollutant concentrations in micro-environments that ordinary people visit. This slides shows that there are two basic ways to measure personal exposure. The next series of slides will discuss the direct approach. That will be followed by a series of slides on the indirect approach. This slides shows that there are two basic ways to measure personal exposure. The next series of slides will discuss the direct approach. That will be followed by a series of slides on the indirect approach.

Slide 18:Lady Carrying a CO Personal Exposure Monitor (PEM) Is she weighing an apple at Safeway? Yes, but she’s also measuring her personal exposure to carbon monoxide. Under her arm and fastened to her jacket pocket is a portable personal exposure monitor (PEM) for CO that runs on batteries. The monitor measures and records the CO levels to which she is exposed everywhere she goes throughout the day.Is she weighing an apple at Safeway? Yes, but she’s also measuring her personal exposure to carbon monoxide. Under her arm and fastened to her jacket pocket is a portable personal exposure monitor (PEM) for CO that runs on batteries. The monitor measures and records the CO levels to which she is exposed everywhere she goes throughout the day.

Slide 19:Page of a Diary from a CO Exposure Study This slide shows the completed page of a diary used in an exposure study in Denver, Colorado during the fall of 1982 and winter of 1983. This information was recorded by a person who was chosen at random from the urban population. This information tells us what factors may affect higher CO exposures.This slide shows the completed page of a diary used in an exposure study in Denver, Colorado during the fall of 1982 and winter of 1983. This information was recorded by a person who was chosen at random from the urban population. This information tells us what factors may affect higher CO exposures.

Slide 20:Duan’s Model for Estimating Total Exposure to an Air Pollutant in a Population Ei = the total integrated exposure of person i over some period of interest (e.g., 24 hours) Ck = the air pollutant concentration in microenvironment type k (e.g., indoor, outdoor, in-vehicle) Tik = the amount of time spent by person i in microenvironment type k k = the number of microenvironment types encountered by person i over the period of interest The total exposure model of a populationThe total exposure model of a population

Slide 21:The Integrated CO Exposure of a Hypothetical Person for a 24-hour Period Example of microenvironments occupied by person i as a function of time for a 24-hour periodExample of microenvironments occupied by person i as a function of time for a 24-hour period

Slide 22:Hypothetical Histogram of Exposure to Carbon Monoxide of 200,000 People on Given Date This is a hypothetical histogram of air pollutant exposures for an urban population of 200,000 persons on a particular date. This graph represents one goal of large-scale surveys of urban population exposure, such as the Denver-Washington studies in 1982-83. The black area under the curve represents the percentage of people in the city whose exposure exceeds the 8-hour National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for carbon monoxide. Source: Wayne R. Ott, et al, “ A research plan for population exposure monitoring methodology: Vehicular air pollutants,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1981. p. 9.This is a hypothetical histogram of air pollutant exposures for an urban population of 200,000 persons on a particular date. This graph represents one goal of large-scale surveys of urban population exposure, such as the Denver-Washington studies in 1982-83. The black area under the curve represents the percentage of people in the city whose exposure exceeds the 8-hour National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for carbon monoxide. Source: Wayne R. Ott, et al, “ A research plan for population exposure monitoring methodology: Vehicular air pollutants,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1981. p. 9.

Slide 23:U.S. EPA’s Direct Studies of Urban Population Exposure to Carbon Monoxide (CO) Representative samples of adults (18 to 70 years of age) in two cities during fall of 1982 and winter of 1983: 454 people in Denver carried a PEM and kept a diary for 48 hours. 712 people in Washington, DC, carried a PEM and kept a diary for 24 hours. In both cities … fixed-site monitors overestimated the 8-hour exposures of people with low-level personal exposures and underestimated the 8-hour exposures of people with high-level personal exposures. Over 10% of the daily maximum 8-hour personal exposures exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 9 ppm for CO in Denver, and about 4% did so in Washington.

Slide 24:Results of Direct Studies (continued) Indoor mean CO exposure increased … 2.6 ppm when operating a gas stove 1.6 ppm when smokers were present 0.4 ppm if a parking garage was attached to the home Higher CO exposures occurred for travel by motor vehicles (motorcycle, bus, car, and truck) than for pedestrian or bicycle modes of travel. Commuting 6 hours or more per week resulted in higher average CO exposures. Above 9 ppm observed in garages, service stations, and vehicle repair shops. Jobs with high CO exposure included taxi drivers, policemen, and chauffeurs. (Source: Akland et al., 1985)

Slide 25:Diurnal CO Exposure Profile of a Denver, Colorado Respondent using a Personal Monitor along with Predicted Blood Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) This is the 24-hour profile of CO exposure of a female who participated in the direct study performed in Denver, Colorado during fall of 1982 and winter of 1983. The graph shows not only the person’s personal CO exposure over time, but also the predicted and observed blood carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels (Duan et al., 1990). Notice that the observed breath COHb level during her commute home at 5:00 pm is close to 2%. This is the 24-hour profile of CO exposure of a female who participated in the direct study performed in Denver, Colorado during fall of 1982 and winter of 1983. The graph shows not only the person’s personal CO exposure over time, but also the predicted and observed blood carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels (Duan et al., 1990). Notice that the observed breath COHb level during her commute home at 5:00 pm is close to 2%.

Slide 26:Exposure Studies on U.S. Roadways This is a photograph of motor vehicle traffic on a highway in California.This is a photograph of motor vehicle traffic on a highway in California.

Slide 27:Spatial Variation in CO Concentrations at “Breathing Level” (approximately 2 meters high) in an Urban Area This is a model of the spatial variation of CO concentrations in a portion of an urban areas measured at “breathing level” (approximately 2 m) The vertical axis denotes the concentration, and the horizontal axes denote distance across the city (Ott, 1977). In many cities, scientists have measured higher CO concentrations at intersections and along highways and arterials. Scientists have observed much lower background CO concentrations at locations in-between these line sources. This is a model of the spatial variation of CO concentrations in a portion of an urban areas measured at “breathing level” (approximately 2 m) The vertical axis denotes the concentration, and the horizontal axes denote distance across the city (Ott, 1977). In many cities, scientists have measured higher CO concentrations at intersections and along highways and arterials. Scientists have observed much lower background CO concentrations at locations in-between these line sources.

Slide 28:Relative Concentrations of Three Air Pollutants on I-405 Freeway in West Los Angeles(Zhu et al., 2002)

Slide 29:Imagine a person driving a motor vehicle in heavy traffic. The person is carrying a personal exposure monitor inside the car. This slide shows the location of the vehicle (see asterisk *) and the tailpipe exhaust fumes emitted by vehicles ahead of the test vehicle. The direction of the exhaust fumes are affected by the direction of the wind and the concentration of the air pollutants is affected in part by the wind speed. Emissions from traffic moving in the opposite direction may also affect observed exposures in the test vehicle. (Source: Melvin N. Ingalls and Robert J. Garbe, “Ambient Pollutant Concentrations from Mobile Sources in Microscale Situations,” SAE Technical Paper Series 820787, Warrendale, Pensylvania, 1982)Imagine a person driving a motor vehicle in heavy traffic. The person is carrying a personal exposure monitor inside the car. This slide shows the location of the vehicle (see asterisk *) and the tailpipe exhaust fumes emitted by vehicles ahead of the test vehicle. The direction of the exhaust fumes are affected by the direction of the wind and the concentration of the air pollutants is affected in part by the wind speed. Emissions from traffic moving in the opposite direction may also affect observed exposures in the test vehicle. (Source: Melvin N. Ingalls and Robert J. Garbe, “Ambient Pollutant Concentrations from Mobile Sources in Microscale Situations,” SAE Technical Paper Series 820787, Warrendale, Pensylvania, 1982)

Slide 30:Arie J. Haagen-Smit, professor of bio-organic chemistry at Caltech, adjusts an instrument used to measure CO concentrations while commuting in traffic in Los Angeles in the mid-1960s. One of the first indirect studies of commuter exposure was performed by Dr. Arie J. Haagen-Smit, a professor of bio-organic chemistry at Caltech University in Pasadena, California. Professor Haagen-Smit is well known in the air pollution field for his famous laboratory experiments on ozone formation. In this picture, he is adjusting the instrument used to measure concentrations of carbon monoxide while commuting in traffic in Los Angeles. Using a glass tube, the instrument measured the ambient CO concentration at the outer surface of the windshield of the car. The outside measurement can be a good approximation of exposure inside the car, if there is a rapid exchange of air between the passenger cabin and the exterior environment.One of the first indirect studies of commuter exposure was performed by Dr. Arie J. Haagen-Smit, a professor of bio-organic chemistry at Caltech University in Pasadena, California. Professor Haagen-Smit is well known in the air pollution field for his famous laboratory experiments on ozone formation. In this picture, he is adjusting the instrument used to measure concentrations of carbon monoxide while commuting in traffic in Los Angeles. Using a glass tube, the instrument measured the ambient CO concentration at the outer surface of the windshield of the car. The outside measurement can be a good approximation of exposure inside the car, if there is a rapid exchange of air between the passenger cabin and the exterior environment.

Slide 31:Results of Haagen-Smit’s Study:Variation in CO Concentrations while Commuting This is a profile of the CO concentration measured by Professor Haagen-Smit while commuting in Los Angeles, in the mid-1960s. Haagen-Smit’s study represents a baseline study of commuter CO exposure in the United States, because it was undertaken shortly before the first engine adjustments were made on cars to reduce their CO emissions.This is a profile of the CO concentration measured by Professor Haagen-Smit while commuting in Los Angeles, in the mid-1960s. Haagen-Smit’s study represents a baseline study of commuter CO exposure in the United States, because it was undertaken shortly before the first engine adjustments were made on cars to reduce their CO emissions.

Slide 32:Kalanianaole Highway in Honolulu, Hawai’i

Slide 33:Traffic Lanes Subject to Transportation System Managementon Kalanianaole Highway

Slide 35:Previous Question Can periodic measurements of personal exposure to mobile-source air pollutants over time be used to assess the effectiveness of motor vehicle emission control programs?

Slide 36:Plot of Typical Ambient and In-Vehicle CO Concentrations for 16 Studies, 1965-1992 Source: Flachsbart 1995, p. 488. This graph summarizes the results of 16 commuter exposure studies performed between 1965 and 1992. Notice that mean CO concentrations inside vehicles fell from an average of 37 ppm in 1965, as reported by Haagen-Smit for a study in Los Angeles, California, to an average of 3 ppm in 1992 for a study by Lawryk et al. (1995) in the New Jersey suburbs of New York City. In each study, trips lasted for an hour or less. The Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association reported that the percentage of in-use passenger cars in the United States with catalytic and other types of emission controls increased from 50% in 1980 to 90.3% by 1989. Two of the 16 studies (#8 and #15) are noteworthy, because they adhered to a standardized protocol to facilitate comparisons in exposure over one decade. Otherwise the methods of collecting data varied from one study to another. This graph summarizes the results of 16 commuter exposure studies performed between 1965 and 1992. Notice that mean CO concentrations inside vehicles fell from an average of 37 ppm in 1965, as reported by Haagen-Smit for a study in Los Angeles, California, to an average of 3 ppm in 1992 for a study by Lawryk et al. (1995) in the New Jersey suburbs of New York City. In each study, trips lasted for an hour or less. The Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association reported that the percentage of in-use passenger cars in the United States with catalytic and other types of emission controls increased from 50% in 1980 to 90.3% by 1989. Two of the 16 studies (#8 and #15) are noteworthy, because they adhered to a standardized protocol to facilitate comparisons in exposure over one decade. Otherwise the methods of collecting data varied from one study to another.

Slide 37:Findings of Review of 16 Exposure Studies Downward trends in both the mean in-vehicle CO concentration (top line) and the concurrently measured ambient CO concentrations (bottom line) of these studies. Typical CO exposures of U.S. commuters fell approximately 92% from 1965 to 1992. The mean in-vehicle CO concentration of a given study was typically 3.5 times greater than the concurrently measured mean ambient CO concentration at the nearby fixed-site monitor. Typical commuter CO exposures varied by … study approach (direct vs. indirect) and even by researcher for the more common type of study (i.e., the indirect approach) city where surveys were performed season of the year roadway type (freeway, expressways/arterials, residential streets) location of survey (central city, suburb, rural) travel mode (automobile, bus, rail transit, etc.) ventilation settings of the test vehicle Source: Flachsbart, 1995.

Slide 38:U.S. Exhaust Emission Standardsby New Vehicle Model Year The downward trend in commuter CO exposure in the previous figure can be explained by a tightening over the same period of the exhaust CO emissions standards as applied to new vehicles sold in the U.S. over the same period. Stricter emission standards were necessary to offset the growth in the motor vehicle population and in the annual number of miles drive per vehicle that occurred during this period. Source: U.S. Department of Energy. Transportation Energy Databook: Edition 17. August 1997. Table 7.12. American Automobile Manufacturers Association. Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 1997. pp. 83-84.The downward trend in commuter CO exposure in the previous figure can be explained by a tightening over the same period of the exhaust CO emissions standards as applied to new vehicles sold in the U.S. over the same period. Stricter emission standards were necessary to offset the growth in the motor vehicle population and in the annual number of miles drive per vehicle that occurred during this period. Source: U.S. Department of Energy. Transportation Energy Databook: Edition 17. August 1997. Table 7.12. American Automobile Manufacturers Association. Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 1997. pp. 83-84.

Slide 39:Longitudinal Study in San Francisco Bay Area The study was performed in the suburb of Palo Alto in the San Francisco Bay Area during three different time periods: 1980-81, 1991-92, and 2001-02. This map shows the location of Palo Alto in Santa Clara County. The study was performed in the suburb of Palo Alto in the San Francisco Bay Area during three different time periods: 1980-81, 1991-92, and 2001-02. This map shows the location of Palo Alto in Santa Clara County.

Slide 40:Map of Survey Site: El Camino Real (State Route 82) This is a map of the survey site: El Camino Real (State Route 82). This route is adjacent to the campus of Stanford University. Note the location of the fixed-site ambient monitoring station located in the upper left-hand corner. It’s about 5.2 miles from the mid-point of the study site, which is the intersection of El Camino Real and Page Mill Road. The study site is 5.9 miles in one direction. Note the starting and ending points of each trip. The driver also measured the background CO concentration after each trip about 300 feet from the arterial highway.This is a map of the survey site: El Camino Real (State Route 82). This route is adjacent to the campus of Stanford University. Note the location of the fixed-site ambient monitoring station located in the upper left-hand corner. It’s about 5.2 miles from the mid-point of the study site, which is the intersection of El Camino Real and Page Mill Road. The study site is 5.9 miles in one direction. Note the starting and ending points of each trip. The driver also measured the background CO concentration after each trip about 300 feet from the arterial highway.

Slide 41:Rooftop Fixed-Site Monitoring Station

Slide 42:The upper photograph shows a view of traffic from inside the test vehicle heading south on El Camino Real before reaching Stanford Ave., Palo Alto. The lower left photograph shows the driver, Wayne Ott, during the 2001-2002 survey. The lower right photograph shows the precision digital clock, 2 Langan CO monitors, and a clipboard with survey form during the 2001-2002 survey. Two monitors were used to improve the reliability of measurements. The monitors were calibrated before and after each trip using reference gases.The upper photograph shows a view of traffic from inside the test vehicle heading south on El Camino Real before reaching Stanford Ave., Palo Alto. The lower left photograph shows the driver, Wayne Ott, during the 2001-2002 survey. The lower right photograph shows the precision digital clock, 2 Langan CO monitors, and a clipboard with survey form during the 2001-2002 survey. Two monitors were used to improve the reliability of measurements. The monitors were calibrated before and after each trip using reference gases.

Slide 43:This figure shows how to connect a DataBear Model T15d Enhanced CO Measurer to a Macintosh computer using a Keyspan USB Twin Serial Adapter.This figure shows how to connect a DataBear Model T15d Enhanced CO Measurer to a Macintosh computer using a Keyspan USB Twin Serial Adapter.

Slide 44:Number of Trips Taken by Survey Period This table shows the raw number of trips taken during each of the three survey periods. Notice that each survey period spanned a period of 14 to 15 months to capture expected seasonal variation in CO concentrations.This table shows the raw number of trips taken during each of the three survey periods. Notice that each survey period spanned a period of 14 to 15 months to capture expected seasonal variation in CO concentrations.

Slide 46:Light-Duty Vehicle Exhaust Emission Standards for Carbon MonoxideEmission rates by (or adjusted to equivalent) 1975 Federal Test Procedure (a) Federal Tier 1 CO standards, which were phased in beginning 1994, include a cold temperature standard of 10 grams/mile measured at 20 °F rather than at 75 °F under the Federal Test Procedure. California included an identical cold temperature CO requirement beginning with the 1996 model year. (b) The emission standards in parenthesis are phase-in standards for the 1993 and 1994 model years. The first standard applies to the vehicle’s first 5 years or 50,000 miles, and the second standard applies for 10 years or 100,000 miles. Manufacturers must certify a minimum of 40% of their vehicles to the phase-in standard or to the more stringent standards of test procedures. (Sources: U.S. DOT, 1999; Air Resources Board, 1997; Godish, 1991) This table compares the light-duty vehicle exhaust emission standards for carbon monoxide for California and the other 49 states. The Clean Air Act allows California to have different emission standards for these vehicles, because of the state’s unique air quality problem. The table also shows how the tailpipe standards have become more strict over time. Emission rates by (or adjusted to equivalent) 1975 Federal Test Procedure (a) Federal Tier 1 CO standards, which were phased in beginning 1994, include a cold temperature standard of 10 grams/mile measured at 20 °F rather than at 75 °F under the Federal Test Procedure. California included an identical cold temperature CO requirement beginning with the 1996 model year. (b) The emission standards in parenthesis are phase-in standards for the 1993 and 1994 model years. The first standard applies to the vehicle’s first 5 years or 50,000 miles, and the second standard applies for 10 years or 100,000 miles. Manufacturers must certify a minimum of 40% of their vehicles to the phase-in standard or to the more stringent standards of test procedures. Sources: U.S. DOT, 1999; p. 26; Air Resources Board, 1997, pp. 3-3, 3-9, and 3-11; Godish, 1991, p. 262. This table compares the light-duty vehicle exhaust emission standards for carbon monoxide for California and the other 49 states. The Clean Air Act allows California to have different emission standards for these vehicles, because of the state’s unique air quality problem. The table also shows how the tailpipe standards have become more strict over time. Emission rates by (or adjusted to equivalent) 1975 Federal Test Procedure (a) Federal Tier 1 CO standards, which were phased in beginning 1994, include a cold temperature standard of 10 grams/mile measured at 20 °F rather than at 75 °F under the Federal Test Procedure. California included an identical cold temperature CO requirement beginning with the 1996 model year. (b) The emission standards in parenthesis are phase-in standards for the 1993 and 1994 model years. The first standard applies to the vehicle’s first 5 years or 50,000 miles, and the second standard applies for 10 years or 100,000 miles. Manufacturers must certify a minimum of 40% of their vehicles to the phase-in standard or to the more stringent standards of test procedures. Sources: U.S. DOT, 1999; p. 26; Air Resources Board, 1997, pp. 3-3, 3-9, and 3-11; Godish, 1991, p. 262.

Slide 47:The State of California implemented its vehicle inspection and maintenance program in 1984. The program is known locally as Smog Check. This map shows what areas of California are subject to the Smog Check II program. A “basic” program applies to the San Francisco Bay Area. Program requirements are shown in the next slide.The State of California implemented its vehicle inspection and maintenance program in 1984. The program is known locally as Smog Check. This map shows what areas of California are subject to the Smog Check II program. A “basic” program applies to the San Francisco Bay Area. Program requirements are shown in the next slide.

Slide 48:Comparison of Current Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) Programs in California

Slide 49:One-Minute Average Net CO Concentrations forMatched Trips in Early June of Each Survey Period This graph shows one-minute average CO exposures measured on three different survey dates on the “standard route” on El Camino Real for the same day of the week (Friday) and similar time of day on: (a) June 6, 1980; (b) June 7, 1991; and (c) June 8, 2001. Notice that two monitors were operating side-by-side and are plotted together in 2001. The figure shows that the peak CO concentrations were highest for the trip on June 6, 1980, were relatively lower for most of the trip on June 7, 1991, and were lowest of all for the trip on June 8, 2001. This result could be attributed to the Smog Check program and to “durability standards” on emission controls that were adopted by California in 1990. These standards, which were phased-in on new cars sold in California in 1993 and 1994, required automobile makers to extend warranties on emission control equipment from 5 years or 50,000 miles to 10 years or 100,000 miles. This graph shows one-minute average CO exposures measured on three different survey dates on the “standard route” on El Camino Real for the same day of the week (Friday) and similar time of day on: (a) June 6, 1980; (b) June 7, 1991; and (c) June 8, 2001. Notice that two monitors were operating side-by-side and are plotted together in 2001. The figure shows that the peak CO concentrations were highest for the trip on June 6, 1980, were relatively lower for most of the trip on June 7, 1991, and were lowest of all for the trip on June 8, 2001. This result could be attributed to the Smog Check program and to “durability standards” on emission controls that were adopted by California in 1990. These standards, which were phased-in on new cars sold in California in 1993 and 1994, required automobile makers to extend warranties on emission control equipment from 5 years or 50,000 miles to 10 years or 100,000 miles.

Slide 50:Carbon Monoxide Exposure in Bangkok Carbon monoxide exposure levels in Bangkok Source: Urban Transport and the Environment in the Asia-Pacific Region, M. Walsh, 1991.Carbon monoxide exposure levels in Bangkok Source: Urban Transport and the Environment in the Asia-Pacific Region, M. Walsh, 1991.

Slide 51:Hypothetical CO Exposure of a Person in an Asian Cityfor a 24-hour period Example of microenvironments occupied by person i as a function of time for a 24-hour periodExample of microenvironments occupied by person i as a function of time for a 24-hour period

Slide 52:Does CO exposure contribute to traffic accidents? One-hour peak exposures (= 5% COHb in the blood) can affect a person’s central nervous system, visual perception, hearing ability, and manual dexterity. Such exposures may diminish a healthy person’s vigilance and ability to drive a vehicle in traffic. (U.S. EPA, Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide, 2000) 5 - 17% COHb is associated with statistically significant reductions in visual perception, manual dexterity, ability to learn, and/or performance of complex sensorimotor tasks (e.g., driving a motor vehicle). (World Health Organization, 1987)

Slide 53:International Comparison: Typical Net Mean In-Vehicle CO Concentrations by Travel Mode for Cities in Three Countries a,b,c Many studies of commuter CO exposure have been undertaken in the United States and in other countries since the first exposure study by Professor Haagen-Smit in Los Angeles. This slide compares results of studies performed in three countries: the USA, Mexico and France. The results show that commuter exposure to CO may be an indicator of a country’s level of economic development as predicted by the Kuznet’s curve. Each study used the indirect approach to measure commuter CO exposure during peak periods of travel and gathered concurrent ambient CO levels from fixed-site monitors. The variation in exposure between the U.S. and Mexico can partly be explained by comparing the history of automotive emission standards in each country. The Washington study occurred in early 1983, about two years after the 3.4 grams/mile standard took effect in the U.S., and the Mexico City study occurred in 1991, two years before the same standard took effect in Mexico.Many studies of commuter CO exposure have been undertaken in the United States and in other countries since the first exposure study by Professor Haagen-Smit in Los Angeles. This slide compares results of studies performed in three countries: the USA, Mexico and France. The results show that commuter exposure to CO may be an indicator of a country’s level of economic development as predicted by the Kuznet’s curve. Each study used the indirect approach to measure commuter CO exposure during peak periods of travel and gathered concurrent ambient CO levels from fixed-site monitors. The variation in exposure between the U.S. and Mexico can partly be explained by comparing the history of automotive emission standards in each country. The Washington study occurred in early 1983, about two years after the 3.4 grams/mile standard took effect in the U.S., and the Mexico City study occurred in 1991, two years before the same standard took effect in Mexico.

Slide 54:Timetable for Automobile Emissions Standards in Asia This figure shows the timetable for automobile emissions standards in Asia. For Vietnam, note: e: gasoline vehicle; f: diesel vehicles. (Source: Walsh, 2003; HEI, 2004, p. 39)This figure shows the timetable for automobile emissions standards in Asia. For Vietnam, note: e: gasoline vehicle; f: diesel vehicles. (Source: Walsh, 2003; HEI, 2004, p. 39)

Slide 55:EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars (Category M1*), g/km

Slide 56:Recommendation Asia’s rapidly growing motor vehicle population Still nascent motor vehicle emission control and inspection programs

Slide 57:Some Recent Traffic-Related Exposure Studiesin Asian Countries Roadside exposure to PM10 in Hong Kong, China (Chan et al., 2000) Occupational exposure to VOCs in Taegu, Korea (Jo and Yu, 2001; Jo and Song, 2001) Roadside exposure to PAHs in Bangkok and Tokyo (Chetwittayachan et al., 2002) Roadside exposure to VOCs in Guangzhou, Macau, and Nanhai, China (Wang et al., 2002) In-vehicle exposure to PM10, PM2.5, CO, VOCs in Guangzhou, China (Chan et al., 2002, 2003) In-vehicle exposure to VOCs in Hong Kong, China (Lau and Chan, 2003) In-vehicle exposure to PAHs in Taichung, Taiwan, China (Kuo et al., 2003) In-vehicle exposure to VOCs in Hong Kong, China (Lau and Chan, 2003) Source: Han and Naeher, Environment International 32, 2006, 106-120.

Slide 60:2005 Pilot Study of Exposure in Bangalore, IndiaCO monitor (left) and PM10 monitor (right) CO monitor was a Langan T15d PM10 monitor was a MIE pDRAM 1100 AN based on light scattering particle detection system that was operated passively.CO monitor was a Langan T15d PM10 monitor was a MIE pDRAM 1100 AN based on light scattering particle detection system that was operated passively.

Slide 61:Thank you ! flachsba@hawaii.edu