Objective 3.1

1. Objective 3.1 Evaluate participant, non-participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations.

2. What does the command term require us to do?

3. Evaluate: make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.Any evaluation will require that you first define/explain the type of interview .It is also important to provide examples of why these are strengths and limitations to show the reader a high level of knowledge and understanding.

4. “I’d rather see a sermon that to hear one any day” -Edgar Guest (Live your creed poem)

5. Overview of observations • What people say they believe and say that they do are often contradicted by their behavior. • A large body of scientific literature documenting this disparity exists, and we can all likely summon examples from our own lives. • Given the frequency of this very human inconsistency, observation can be a powerful check against what people report about themselves during interviews and focus groups.

6. Overview of observations When to Use 1. Too much error in accounts/recounts. Need to study topic in natural setting. 2. Too much bias with researcher presence in doing interviews: 3. RQ has to do with behavior or a setting. How people act in public places or the informal rules of interaction. Examples are classroom settings and meetings.

7. Overview of observations When to Use 4. You need to experience the phenomenon in order to understand it (examples traumatic stress symptoms in at-risk students) 5. Data not available via interviews: people not available.

8. The types of observations used in Qualitative research. • Participant • Non-participant • Overt • Covert • Naturalistic

9. What is participant observation? • Participant observation refers to a form of research methodology in which the researcher takes on a role in the social situation under observation. • The social researcher immerses his/herself in the social setting under study, getting to know members of a sub group in that location in a role which is either covert or overt, although in practice, the researcher will often move between these two roles.

10. What is participant observation? • Participant observation is a qualitative method with roots in traditional ethnographic research, whose objective is to help researchers learn the perspectives held by study populations. • Qualitative researchers presume that there will be multiple perspectives within any given community. • Researchers are interested in knowing what those diverse perspectives are and in understanding the interplay among them.

11. What is participant observation? • Participant observation always takes place in community settings, in locations believed to have some relevance to the research questions. • The method is distinctive because the researcher approaches participants in their own environment rather than having the participants come to the researcher. • Generally speaking, the researcher engaged in participant observation tries to learn what life is like for an “insider” while remaining, inevitably, an “outsider.”

12. What is participant observation? • While in these community settings, researchers make careful, objective notesabout what they see, recording all accounts and observations as field notes in a field notebook. • Informal conversation and interaction with members of the study population are also important components of the method and should be recorded in the field notes, in as much detail as possible. • Information and messages communicated through mass media such as radio or television may also be pertinent and thus desirable to document.

13. What can we learn from participant observation? • Data obtained through participant observation serve as a check against participants’ subjective reporting of what they believe and do. • Participant observation is also useful for gaining an understanding of the physical, social, cultural, and economic contexts in which study participants live; the relationships among and between people, contexts, ideas, norms, and events; and people’s behaviors and activities – what they do, how frequently, and with whom.

14. Strengths of participant observations • Allows for insight into contexts, relationships, behavior. How so? Explain. • Another strength is the richness of the description. .How so?

15. Limitations of participant observations • The main disadvantage of participant observation is that it is time-consuming. In traditional cases, researchers spend at least one year in the field site collecting data through participant observation and other methods. • This is not practical for most applied research studies, which necessarily require a shorter period of data collection.

16. Limitations of participant observations • By entering the group, the observer by definition changes it to some extent. What are examples of this? • Some researchers hold that participant observational research is always unethical. Why is this?

17. Limitations of participant observations • Another disadvantage of participant observation is the difficulty of documenting the data – it is hard to write down everything that is important while you are in the act of participating and observing. • As the researcher, you must therefore rely on your memory and on your own personal discipline to write down and expand your observations as soon and as completely as possible.

18. Limitations of participant observations • It is easy to tell yourself that you will do this task later, but, because memory fades quickly, postponing the expansion of notes can lead to loss or inaccurate recording of data. • The quality of the data therefore depends on the diligence of the researcher, rather than on technology such as tape recorders (although some researcher used video recorders to assist in their observations).

19. Non-participant observations • A research technique whereby the researcher watches or records the subjects of his or her study, with their knowledge, but without taking an active role in the situation under scrutiny. • This approach is sometimes criticized on the grounds that the very fact of their being observed may lead people to behave differently, thus invalidating the data obtained, i.e. the Hawthorne effect.

20. Non-participant observations • An example would be someone sitting in Mr. Freeman’s classroom observing lectures or watching interactions between health care professionals and patients in a clinic.(overt non-participation observation) • Observation through one way mirrors may also fall into this category. The observer would not join in on the activities of the group, they would watch from a far. (covert non-participation observation)

21. Why use Non-participant observations? • Researchers who study how people communicate often want to examine the details of how people talkand behave together. Non-participant observation involving the use of recording devices might be a good choice for this type of study. • This data collection approach results in a detailed recording of the communication and provides the researcher with access to the contours of talk (e.g. intonation) as well as body behavior (e.g. facial expression, eye gaze). Even a great observer cannot record these aspects in detail.

22. Why use Non-participant observations? • The Non-Participating observer concentrates fully on his or her role and as a researching observer, taking little or no part in the interactions/situations to be investigated. • More precise records can be made by Non-Participatory Observations, as the observer can concentrate fully on his/her the interpretation of what he or she sees. (strength)

23. Why use Non-participant observations? • Non-Participatory Observation is also accorded a high degree of objectivitysince the observation is effectively external and disinterested. • However, this very situation also contains the risk that the observer will remain distant from the natural environment of the people being investigated, thus transferring his/her own explanatory models over to the group or situation under observation. (limitation) • .

24. Strengths of non-participant observations • Participant and nonparticipant observations share several benefits and problems, both being useful fact-finding methods when in depth data is sought. This is especially true when the investigator wants to describe a cycle of events. • Observers are able to focus on the dynamics of a particular group without personally influencing the group (from a participant perspective-although the presence of the researcher can still influence the group to some extent).

25. Strengths of non-participant observations • The researcher establishes his/her role as observer, thus ethical considerations are made.

26. Limitations of non-participant observations • Observers are only usually able to view the behavior from an eticstandpoint. Explain to the reader. • Observers are able to focus on the dynamics of a particular group without personally influencing the group (from a participant perspective-although the presence of the researcher can still influence the group to some extent).

27. Types of Participant & Non-Participant Observations There are two main types of observation; covert and overt:- • Inthe case of Covert Observation, the people being observed do not know that they are observed. • The observation is undertaken discreetly so that the behavior of the person being observed is not disrupted or altered. The person’s behavior is intended to continue as naturally as possible.

28. Types of Participant & Non-Participant Observations • Covert observation- Participant observation carried out without the explicit awareness and agreement of the social group being studied. • This entails finding some self-explanatory role within the research setting in order to mask the researcher's true purpose. It may be used because research access to the social unit group would normally be denied, or to ensure that the researcher's presence does not affect the behavior of those being observed.

29. How to conduct Covert Observations • Either they mix in with the subjects undetected (participant), or they observe from a distance(non-participant). The strengths of this approach are: (1) It does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide information. (2) The subjects’ behavior will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher.

30. How to conduct Covert Observations • The limitations of this approach are: (1) It is deemed unethical by many review boards because of the lack of informed consent. (2) Susceptible to researcher bias. Interpretation of observed behavior is subjective to the perspective of the researcher. (3) Does not increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.

31. Types of Participant & Non-Participant Observations • An overt observation in when a participant knows that they are being observed and the purpose behind the observation. • This method of observation means that participants can be followed to different locations as fully informed consent can be given with no need for deception. (strengths) • However as the participant knows that they are being followed, it is likely that there will be a high chance of demand characteristics as they will wish to please the observer.(limitations)

32. Overt Observations • According to Jerquer (2010) The strengths of this approach are: • It is ethically sound (unlike covert observation) • Gains in depth emic knowledge from sub groups. (unlike questionnaires) • Can increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.

33. Overt Observations • The limitations of this approach are: • Overt observations can be time consuming. Researchers must spend numerous hours observing and interpreting behavior. • Can cause the Hawthorne effect (because they know they're being observed) • Can be difficult to maintain confidentiality with some observed information. • Some more sensitive subjects

34. The four types of Participant/Non Participant Observations

35. Aim, plan for observation, method • Define purpose of research • Decide on what kind of notes to be made • Make necessary arrangements for observation • Familiarize yourself with setting and people • Decide on observational method (e.g. participant observation, more than one observer, post observational interviews)

36. Suggestions on what to consider in the reflexive analysis • Possible researcher bias • Possible Hawthorne effect • Ecological validity

37. Ethical considerations • Informed consent (only possible for overt observations) • Observation might stress participants • Use of deception (if covert participant observation) • Debriefing (sometimes difficult) • Invasion of privacy issue

38. Data analysis • Qualitative: Use of inductive content analysis • Quantitative: Use of coding schemes, frequencies and ratings

39. Objective 3.2 Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation

40. Observations • Much in depth qualitative research is observational in part. The reporting of such research is often inadequate, which hampers the assessment of its strengths and limitations and of a study's generalizability. • Bailey (1987) developed recommendations on what should be included in an accurate and complete report of an observational study. This is what we will use to answer this objective

41. Observations • There are various considerations available to an observation researcher in undertaking research. • Many of these considerations pertain to the way the researcher is to observe the phenomena of interest and are contingent upon various factors, including the purpose of the research, the setting in which the research will take place, the resources available and the nature of the study.

42. The Observation Research Process All observation research exercises tend to follow a common pattern of activities. This process has a number of distinct stages. The following is a nine-step approach in conducting an observational study.

43. The Observation Research Process Step 1- Determine Observation Research Objectives. • What the researcher wants to observe and the purpose of the observation is listed in the form of research objectives. • The researcher must formulate what is to be achieved by conducting the observation research. In broad terms, the main objective of the study should be to understand and describe the phenomena of interest as completely as possible, although each observer may have more specific sub-objectives.

44. The Observation Research Process Step 2-Selection of Research Subjects. The people to be observed must be decided. The research subjects selected must be done so as to achieve the research objectives. Why is this important?

45. The Observation Research Process Step 3- Decide Field Role. • Prior to entering the field, the observation researcher must decide which field role he/she is going to adopt. • The options available are: overt participant, covert participant, observer-as-participant or overt non-participant, covert non-participant. • The field role selected will be contingent upon the purpose of the research, time allocated for the research, organizational access and ethical approval.

46. The Observation Research Process Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field. • Observation researchers recognize the fundamental need to go where participants spend time. • Most research fields (unless it is a public place) cannot be observed by anyone, at any time. Entry must be gained to the research field. • In organizations, there are individuals who, by virtue of their office, have the authority to act as gatekeepers. • They can grant or withhold formal permission to enter and participate in the life of the organization.

47. The Observation Research Process Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field. • Hence, researchers must negotiate permission for entry through such gatekeepers. • The researcher must determine a strategy whereby, he/she will be granted entry to the field to be studied. • Dealing with such gatekeepers is therefore an extremely important part of gaining entry to the research field, but at the same time several hurdles stand in the way

48. The Observation Research Process Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being Studied. • Achieving rapport is an important prerequisite in participant observation research. • Building rapport entails the development of reciprocal relationships and mutual trust between observer and subjects. Why is it important to build a rapport with participants?

49. The Observation Research Process Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being Studied. • It is only when research subjects treat the observer as a friend and confidant, rather than a researcher that they will reveal their innermost feelings and make their most intimate and unbiased statements. • It can be the most difficult and time-consuming task in observation research, but is impetrative if valid data is to be obtained.

50. The Observation Research Process Step 6 - Observing and Recording. • The researcher begins observing the phenomena of interest and recording findings. Methods of recording (diary, post-observational notes, recorders, etc.) must be determined in this step. • More specifically, field notes recorded should have five components "a running description of events, previously forgotten happenings that are now recalled, analytical ideas and inferences, personal impressions and feelings, and notes for further information" (Source: pg 250.)