Presenter: Sayaka Abe

Color categories: Evidence for the cultural relativity hypothesisby Debi Roberson, Jules Davidoff, Ian R. L. Davies and Laura R. Shapiro Presenter: Sayaka Abe

Issue Does language affects our categorization of perceptual continua? • Universalists – ‘No’ • Relativists – ‘Yes’

Overview Part I. Introduction Development of universalism and criticism Part II. Establish Himba color terms by elicitation (section 2) Part III. Experiments Exp. 1 naming and memory (section 3) Exp. 2 Focal color in memory (sections 4-6) 2a Focal and non-focal short-term memory 2b Long-term learning of focal and non-focal targets Exp. 3 Categorical perception (section 7-10) 3a Similarity judgments 3b Alternative forced-choice recognition judgments 3c Category learning for English and Himba color categories Part IV. General discussion (section 11)

Part I • Introduction Arguing against universalism of color

Universalist view: “language and cognitive experience are largely independent” • There is considerable diversity in the way that different languages segment the continuum of visible colors. (2 to 11) • ‘Basic color terms’, i.e. monolexemic, not subsumed under the meaning of other terms; not restricted to a narrow class of objects; and understood by all observers. (Berlin & Kay 1969) Despite this… • Within these diverse naming systems there are noticeable generalities (Kay, Berlin, & Merrifield, 1991; MacLaury 1987) that led to the proposal of panhuman universals in cognitive color categorization. i.e. ‘focal’ colors, prototype, ‘best example’

Implication If there is a regular pattern of ‘evolution’ in color terminologies, as suggested by Kay et al 1991, then two languages at the same evolutionary ‘stage’ (having 5 color terms) might be expected to have similar cognitive representations of color despite having very different environments.

But • Roberson, Davies, and Davidoff (2000): There are substantial differences in perceptual judgments and memory performance between a language with eleven basic color terms (English) and one with only five (Berinmo). Language not only facilitates memory performance, but also affects the perceived similarity of perceptual stimuli.

The present study: Tasks – Naming – Memory – Categorical perception Cross linguistic comparison Himba (Numbia): 5 terms Berimno (Papua New Guinea): 5 terms English: 11 terms

Purpose: • To confirm and extend the previous findings, concerning cognitive differences linked to labeling differences, in a population with a similar number of color terms but with a different visual diet. to argue against universalism • To investigate the possibility of differences in the cognitive organization of color between speakers of languages despite the substantially similar sets of color terms

Himba (northern Namibia, in Africa) • is a dialect of the Herero language • has 5 basic terms • The speakers are culturally isolated over the last 100 years, resulting in a variety of cultural and linguistic differences from Herero and have a strong and distinctive traditional cultural identity.

Part II • Elicitation pp.380-384

Elicitation – Establishing color terms of Himba Participants • Monolingual speakers of Himba (through an interpreter) • Screened for color vision defects. • Thirty-one Himba adults (23 females, 8 males) aged between approx. 17-55 years • Color naming for a range of Munsell samples varying in hue, lightness, and saturation.

Stimuli (2.1.2) • 160 fully saturated, Munsell color chips varying in hue and lightness. Consisted of hue levels 5 and 10 of ten equally spaced steps around the Munsell circle (Munsell dimension Hue R, YR, Y, YG, G, BG, B, PB, P, RP) each at eight lightness levels (Munsell dimension Value 9/, 8/, 7/, 6/, 5/, 4/, 3/, 2/). • Square glossy finish chips individually mounted on 2 in. square pieces of white card. • 2nd set of chips were mounted on a sheet of white card in their Munsell order (hues horizontally, lightness vertically) for elicitation of best examples of categories.

Procedure (2.1.4) • Participants were shown the individual stimuli, one at a time, in random order and asked, in Himba “what color is this?” (Himba descriptions were recorded.) • After completion of the naming task, participants were shown the array containing all the stimulus chips and asked, for each term they had used, to indicate “which of these is the best example of the color......, which is a true one.

Results (see Fig.1): 5 “basic color terms”* Serandu. “red” but broader (Used for 20.0% of total naming and to name 41% of total range of chips) Dumbu. “beige” “yellow” (also the term for a white person) (Used for 17.5% of total naming and to name 59% of the total range of chips.) Zoozu. “black” (Only 35% of observers chose a black chip as best example; other choices included light blue (10 B 6/10), medium green (5G 5/10) and best example blue (5B 4/10)) 2.6% of observers used the term only for the black chip. All the rest used it for chromatic stimuli. Used for 9.2% of total naming. Used to name 58% of the total range of chips.) Vapa. “white” (but only 35% of Himba observers chose the white tile as best example. 22.4% of observers used the term only for the white chip. All others extended it to chromatic stimuli. Used for 6.8% of total naming, and to name 30.8% of total range of chips.) Burou. “blue” (16% of observers used it only in with another term for any Munsell stimuli; 6% failed to use it at all. Used for 32.7% of total naming. Used to name 57% of the total range of chips, mostly in the blue/green/purple range. Corresponds to a “grue”.)

Himba http://scienceblogs.com/mixingmemory/2006/10/the_effects_of_color_names_on_1.php

Berinmo

English

Part III • Experiments pp. 384-403

Experiment 1: Naming and memory at low saturation Relationship between memory confusion and naming patternsin each language as well as across languages (Low saturation stimuli for high error rates.) This experiment was carried out to attempt to further investigate the suggestion of Heider and Olivier (1972) that the underlying cognitive representations of color in speakers of a language with few color terms resembled those of English speakers, rather than being based on their own color names. Heider and Olivier’s Wndings were ambiguous, because their interpretation, based on the visual representation of the scaled data, partly disagreed with the statistical measure of Wt. Although the memory patterns of American and Dani speakers were more similar than the naming patterns of the two languages, they were less statistically similar than the Dani patterns of naming and memory. Roberson et al. (2000) found consistently, in opposition to Heider and Olivier, that patterns of memory confusion best matched naming patterns in each language. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to name and remember forty stimuli at low levels of saturation. The conditions of the memory experiment (30 s delay) and the use of very low saturation stimuli were designed to produce high error rates. The present experiment set out to compare those Wndings to those in the Himba population. D. Roberson et al. / Cognitive Psychology 50 (2005) 378–411 385 3.1. Method 3.1.1. Participants Twenty-two adult Himba speakers (8 males, 14 females) aged between approximately 17 and 50 years with normal color vision carried out this task. All were tested by the Experimenter in their home villages through the services of an interpreter. 3.1.2. Materials The stimuli were identical to those used by Heider and Olivier (1972). Forty Mun- sell color chips of glossy Wnish made up of ten hues (hue level 7.5) at four lightness levels (Value 9/, 7/, 5/, 3/) evenly spaced around the Munsell hue circle and all at the lowest possible saturation (/2). The chips measured 1 in. square and were mounted, in their Munsell order (lightness vertically, hue horizontally) on a white A4 board. A second identical set was mounted individually on 2-in. square white card. 3.1.3. Apparatus The light box was used for both naming and memory tasks. 3.1.4. Procedure All participants completed both the naming and memory tasks. Half the participants completed the naming task Wrst, while the remainder completed the memory task Wrst. For the naming task, the experimenter displayed the individual chips in the light box, one at a time, and the participant was “What color is this?” All responses were recorded in full. For the memory task, the full array was laid in the light box and covered with a sheet of gray card. Each participant was shown individual test chips, placed on top of the covered array, for 5 s (timed by stopwatch). The chip was then removed and, after a 30-s unWlled delay, the array was uncovered and the participant was asked to select the chip they had just seen. All 40 of the chips were presented to each participant in random order. Participants received no feedback on their performance

Previously, Heider and Olivier (1972): The underlying cognitive representations of color in speakers of a language with few color terms resembled those of English speakers, rather than being based on their own color names. American-Dani: different naming patterns American-Dani: similarmemory patterns  “less statistically similar than the Dani patterns of naming and memory”

Roberson et al. (2000): “Heider and Olivier’s findings were ambiguous… Although the memory patterns of American and Dani speakers were more similar than the naming patterns of the two languages, they were less statistically similar than the Dani patterns of naming and memory.” Dani naming pattern vs. Dani memory pattern Patterns of memory cofusion best matched naming patterns in each language.

Participants 22 adult Himba speakers (8 males, 14 females) between approximately 17–50 years with normal color vision.

Stimuli • 40 Munsell color chips, made up of 10 hues (hue level 7.5) at 4 lightness levels (Value 9/, 7/, 5/, 3/) evenly spaced around the Munsell hue circle and all at the lowest possible saturation (/2). • The chips (1 in. square) in their Munsell order (lightness vertically, hue horizontally) on a white A4 board. • A second identical set was mounted individually on 2-in. square white card. Note: identical to those used by Heider and Olivier (1972)

Procedure Naming task: 1. The experimenter displayed the individual chips in the light box, one at a time, 2. “What color is this?” (responses recorded) Memory task: 1. Each participant was shown individual test chips for 5 sec. 2. The chip was removed 3. After a 30-s, the array was uncovered 4. The participant was asked to select the chip they had just seen. Note: all 40 of the chips were presented to each participant in random order.

Results Naming • Basic terms used by Himba speakers 52% of the stimuli (Cf. Berinmo 95%; Dani 80%) • Himba participants used significantly fewer basic terms to label the desaturated stimuli than had Berinmo participants. Note: Stimuli not named with basic terms, named with secondary cattle or goatskin terms (37.8%) and were left un-named (10.3% ) Memory • See Table 1 for correct identification (out of 50), etc. (Himba 7.0, Berinmo, 9.6, English 19.9)

Correlations between memory performance and color vocabulary The number of correct identifications and the number of unique descriptors generated • Himba: significant correlation between the number of correct identifications and the number of unique descriptors. • True for Berinmo, but not English (from reexamination of previous data from Roberson et al. 2000) Significant at least for languages with few color terms.

Correlations between memory confusions and naming: multi-dimensional scaling (MDS). • To assess the # of times that two items were either called by the same name or confused in memory. (Data points are located in three-dimensional space so that two items would occupy the same point in space were they always called by the same name. Were they never called the same name, they would be placed as far from each other as possible, allowing for their positions relative to all other data points).

Goodness of fit measure (Figure 2) • Vertical axis: the relationship between naming and memory within language. Best fit: Dani > Berinmo > English > Himba and US English. • Top horizontal line: the fits between memory matrices for each language tested • Lowest horizontal line: those between the naming matrices for each language

“The best fit” • Overall, the fit is better between naming matrices than between memory matrices, since the fewer terms a language has, the more chips will be labeled with the same term. • In all cases except one (US naming and memory) the fit between naming and memory within a language is better than the fit between the memory matrices of corresponding languages.

Discussion • The results (Figs. 2 and 3) support previous findings that memory patterns (and presumed cognitive representations) are more similar to patterns of naming within languages than to the memory patterns of other languages. • (Fig. 3B): Stress values for multi-dimensional scaling comparisons of Berinmo and English (both naming and memory) have strong correlation  reflect the tendency of both groups to make more confusions to other stimuli at the same lightness level. • (Figure 3A) Himba speakers were more inclined to use terms that spanned several levels of lightness. Thus the Himba data give the strongest support to date for the tight relationship between naming and memory.

Experiment 2: An examination of the role of focal colors in memory • Considered the role of English focal colors in: • short-term memory (2a) • long-term learning (2b)

Previously • Rosch: Categories would form around particular ‘focal’ colors thought to be more perceptually salient, owing to properties of the visual system. Focals for English categories were better recognized and easier to learn than colors that fall outside the center of these basic categories even by speakers of languages that do not use the English color terms.  not true

Experiment 2a: Focal vs. non-focals in short term memory Participants: • 24 monolingual Himba adults (9 males, 15 females) with normal color vision, (ages of approx. 17-55) Note: all stimuli were tested in conditions of natural daylight for comparison with previous experiments.

Stimuli Targets: • 8 best examples of the English basic chromatic categories (red, yellow, green, blue, orange, purple, pink, brown) • 16 color chips that fall outside the focal areas of English categories (i.e. difficult for English speakers to name). For recognition: - the full array of 160 stimuli used for naming was used to test recognition. (Munsell designations of the target chips were for focal chips: red 5R 4/14, yellow 10YR 8/14, green 10GY 5/12, blue 10B 4/10, pink 5R 8/6, orange 5YR 7/14, brown 5YR 3/6, and purple 5P 3/10. The internominal chips: 5YR 8/8, 10Y 6/10, 10Y 4/6, 10GY 8/8, 10BG 7/6, 10BG 4/6, 5P 7/8 and 5RP 3/8. The Boundary chips were: 5R 2/8, 5Y 3/4, 10Y 9/6, 10GY 7/10, 10G 3/4, 5B 6/10, 10B 3/6, and 5P 6/8.)

Procedure 1. The 160-chip array was placed in front of each participant and covered. 2. Participants were then shown a single target chip for 5 sec. 3. The target chip was withdrawn, 4. After 30s, the test array was uncovered 5. Participantswere instructed to select the test chip matching the target they had just seen. (Note: All participants first received two practice trials with chips that were not in any target category and all received the target chips in random order.)

Results • There was no significant effect of target type (see Table 2) • Nor, there was no reliable advantage for primary (red, yellow, green and blue), over secondary focal colors (pink, purple, orange, and brown) in either language. Himba scores: primary – 1.42; secondary – 1.58. Berinmo scores: primary – 1.86; secondary – 1.61.

(Results cont’d) Naming agreement • Himba categories have a broad focus and several of the ‘non-focal’ examples of English categories have focal status in Himba categories, as indexed by naming agreement. • There are 4 tiles that are considered ‘internominal’ (i.e. falling between 2 basic name categories) for English speakers that receive higher name agreement (over 95%) for a Himba term than their ‘focal’ equivalents.

(Result cont’d) A further analysis for stimuli that were - focal to both languages - focal to Himba only - focal to English only • Significant effect of stimulus type (see Fig. 4). While there was no difference between the number of stimuli recognized that were focal only in Himba or in both languages, those stimuli that were focal in Himba only were recognized significantly more often than those focal only in English.

Berinmo data(Roberson et al., 2000) Consistent with Himba • Some overlap in focality was found (based on 95% naming agreement for the stimuli) • Again, there were some stimuli that are non-focal for English speakers that receive higher name agreement for a Berinmo term than their ‘focal’ equivalents. • Significant effect of stimulus types While there was no difference between the number of stimuli recognized that were focal only in Berinmo or in both languages, those stimuli that were focal in Berinmo only were recognized significantly more often than those focal only in English. (See Fig. 4)

Discussion • Exp. 2a found no evidence that English focal colors are important for the Himba. • Himba performance was poor overall, but at a comparable level to that found for Dani speakers (Heider & Olivier 1972). • Both Himba and Berinmo showed superior recognition memory for those stimuli that were most consistently named (focal) in their own language. • The superior recognition cannot be an artifact of greater perceptual distinctiveness or to the position of targets in the test array, since the critical stimuli differed across languages. • What appears to be universal, in this case, is the tight link between naming and memory.

Experiment 2b. Long-term learning of focal vs. non-focal targets Participants: 12 monolingual Himba adults (4 men, 8 women) with normal color vision, between the ages of approximately 17 and 40

Stimuli • The 8 focal and 8 internominal chips used in Exp. 2a. • Chips measured 20X20mm and were mounted in the center of 50mm square pieces of off-white card. • 16 pictures of Namibian cows were created from photographs of local cattle, adjusted so that the outline shape was an identical side view, but coloring, shading and pattern varied individually. All cattle stimuli were shown against a uniform blue background. Note: All stimuli were displayed in the light box used for naming.

Procedure Participants were required to learn 8 stimulus-response pairs. Each of the 8 target stimuli was paired with a separate response picture. 1. The 8 cattle pictures were first laid out in random order in the light box. 2. The Experimenter showed the participants each of the color stimuli as a paired associate to each picture. 3. The stimuli were then shuffled and the participant was presented with the stimuli, one at a time and asked to pair them with the appropriate picture. (Feedback was given after each response and participants were corrected if they made an error.) 4. The target stimulus was removed from the box before presentation of the next target. Participants completed 5 training sessions per day for five days, or until the criterion of one perfect run had been achieved.

Results • All 12 participants reached criterion within 5 days of training. • The mean number of trials to criterion for the full set of items was 20.5 (4.1 days) (Cf. 16.4 (3.3 days) for Berinmo speakers). • There was no advantage for focal over non-focal items (similar to Berinmo) (Table 3) .

(Results cont’d) Order of learning • The order in which focal colors were learnt by Himba speakers, from lowest to highest errors: yellow (9.83) > red (13) > orange (14) > purple (14.17) > green (15.17) > pink (15.5) > blue (15.67) > brown (16.17). (Berinmo: red/pink (4.83) > purple (7.83) > green (8.67) > blue (9) > brown/orange (9.83) > yellow (11.67))

Discussion • No evidence for an advantage for ‘focal’ items in long-term learning was found in this experiment. • Overall Himba participants made more errors across learning trials than Berinmo participants. (This may have been because the pictures of cattle used as paired associates were less distinctive than the set of palm nuts used with Berinmo speakers.)

Experiment 3: An examination of Categorical Perception (CP) To see if the Himba showed any tendency towards CP for blue and green, or whether, like Berinmo speakers, they would show it only at the boundary of their own name categories. Basic ideas • CP of color: the physical continuum of the chromatic spectrum is perceived as qualitatively discontinuous, discrete segments (red, orange, yellow, etc.) • Items from different categories are judged as greater than distances between items from the same category (Bornstein, 1987). • CP for color is manifest by faster and more accurate discrimination of two colors that cross a category boundary (e.g., between green and blue) than of two colors that are both good exemplars of the same category.

Previously, Roberson et al. (2000): Compared - the boundary between blue and green (in English) - the boundary between the Berinmo terms nol (corresponding to the English green + blue + purple) and wor (corresponding to the English yellow+ green + orange + brown). Construct a set of stimuli crossing the boundary that varied only in hue, maintaining lightness and saturation constant.

Himba participants were tested in each paradigm on - English boundary (between blue and green), - Berinmo boundary (between nol and wor) - Himba boundary (between dumbu and burou) for comparison with previous data. (the position of the Himba and Berinmo boundaries differ only by a small amount.)

Presenter: Sayaka Abe