The Concept of the Household: From Survey Design to Policy Planning Ernestina Coast (LSE) Sara Randall (UCL) Tiziana Leo

1. The Concept of the Household: From Survey Design to Policy Planning Ernestina Coast (LSE) Sara Randall (UCL) Tiziana Leone (LSE) Funded by ESRC

2. The Issue Definition of ‘household’ in African censuses & surveys • What is a household? • Much work examines / critiques household (eg: van de Walle 2006) • Anthropologists very critical of concept

3. Do household definitions matter?

4. Do household definitions matter? ‘The household is central to the development process. Not only is the household a production unit but it is also a consumption, social and demographic unit’ Kenya: Ministry of Planning and National Development 2003:59

5. The Issue Why does the definition matter? What are consequences of household definition? • Data commissioners • Data collectors • Data analysts • Data users • Policy makers • Planning / implementing targeted interventions What are the implications for “household” members?

6. We are not…..Redefining the definition of the household

7. Data designers & collectors have: clear ideas about why need something called ‘household’ clear aims clear understanding of household definition BUT what about analysts / users / consumers far removed from collection? MIGHT: look at definition and assume this is the unit of production, consumption, socialisation central to the development process MIGHT: not even look at definition because they assume they know what a household is shared language

8. Do household definitions matter? • More variables being added in ‘household section’ • Way of measuring wealth / poverty / access to facilities which influence health • New level of analysis / explanation • More use (researchers & policy makers) made of publicly available data • Recognition of importance of society’s basic unit as influence upon members’ well-being

9. Methods • Document review (1950-present) Sub-Saharan Africa Census reports, enumerators manuals, questionnaires >1960 • Major household surveys since 1980 • Key informant in-depth interviews (International) • Ground truthing fieldwork (Tanzania case studies) • Cognitive interviews • Ethnographic interviews • Modelling differences, to include: • Female headed households • Household dependency ratios • Asset indices • Household size

10. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes

11. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes • Themes in definitions • Eating together "Respondents who live in the same housing unit or in connected premises and have common cooking arrangements (eat their food together) Ethiopia 1994

12. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes • Themes in definitions • Eating together • Common housekeeping "Respondents who live in the same housing unit or in connected premises and have common cooking arrangements (eat their food together) Ethiopia 'private household' ..defined as a group of persons living together and sharing living expenses. Tanzania

13. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes • Themes in definitions • Eating together • Common housekeeping • Living together 'private household' ..defined as a group of persons living together and sharing living expenses. Tanzania "Respondents who live in the same housing unit or in connected premises and have common cooking arrangements (eat their food together) Ethiopia 1994 A household consists of a person, or a group of persons, who occupy a common dwelling (or part of it) for at least four days a week and who provide themselves jointly with food and other essentials for living. In other words, they live together as a unit.South Africa

14. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes • Themes in definitions • Eating together • Common housekeeping • Living together • Answerable to head "Respondents who live in the same housing unit or in connected premises and have common cooking arrangements (eat their food together) Ethiopia 1994 'private household' ..defined as a group of persons living together and sharing living expenses. Tanzania • a group of persons who normally live and eat together Kenya 1969 • a group of persons who normally live and eat together, whether or not they are related by blood or marriageKenya 1979/89 • - adds answerable to the same household head Kenya 1999 A household consists of a person, or a group of persons, who occupy a common dwelling (or part of it) for at least four days a week and who provide themselves jointly with food and other essentials for living. In other words, they live together as a unit.S.Africa 1996

15. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes • Household definition practical: facilitating collection of exhaustive enumeration of individuals minimising possibility of double counting • De facto / de jure: All countries de facto. Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana also de jure • Evolution of units over time • Botswana – 1964 household (dwelling place), 1971 household in compound “lolwapa”, 1981+ households • Gambia – 1963 ‘families’ in ‘yards’, 1973 compounds, 1983+ households • Ghana – 1963 house/compound (household for PES), 1970+ households • Kenya – 1962+ households – living together & sharing meals • Malawi – 1966/1977 dwelling unit, 1987+ household • Nigeria – 1952 premises, 1973+ household • Tanzania – 1967+ household • Zambia – 1963+ household (but 1963 rural – ended up being hut) 1969+ household

16. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • AIM: complete enumeration of population along with individual level characteristics for planning purposes • DIFFICULTIES EVOKED • Servants – are they part of household or separate? • Boarders / lodgers • Absent household head • Polygamy • Complicated patterns of male female residence (Ghana) • Children in boarding school

17. Census Data Collection: issues in household definition • Summary: • household definition is practical solution to census aims of total enumeration • recognition (usually) that is a reduced social unit • recognition that compromises are made • set of rules for enumerators to follow • continuity over time – comparability Creation of what van de Walle (2006) calls ‘a statistical household’

18. Tanzanian example: language and the household “So when we , at NBS (in mid 1970s) when we sent and we discussed this in meetings and we said well, we now have to look for a word in Kiswahili – there were suggestions - more than one – as usual. We said, wel,l we have the National Kiswahili Council and we have the Dept of Kiswahili at UDSM. We shall send them the definition of the household as we know it from the UN. Now we shall ask them to suggest what is it the Kiswahili equivalent that would fit that UN definition, that long thing, and we shall suggest that meetings have suggested that it should probably be this or that but maybe there may be some others, and they also came up with the kaya. Kaya is the arrangement that best suits that definition of the household from the UN.” (Senior retired Tanzanian Statistician/Demographer)

19. Sample surveys: issues in household definition(eg: WFS, DHS, WHS) • Household definition • practical: to enable the identification of individuals for individual questionnaires “The household is a device used to get at the individual. The household is the sampling unit while the individual is the observational unit.” World Health Survey 2002 ‘main purpose of household questionnaire was to identify women who were eligible for the individual interview’ Zambia DHS 1992, 1996

20. Sample surveys: issues in household definition(eg: WFS, DHS) • much more standardised (still some local variations) • Little variation between core questionnaires and those used by countries • Little development over time • Comparability across time and space Ghana pilot (WFS) provided some detailed insight into the problems of designing verbatim local language questionnaires: Difficulty of translating the concept ‘household’ in any of the three languages tested (Ewe, Asante-Ti and Dagbani) Cleland et al 1987, p174

21. Do household definitions matter? • More variables being added in ‘household section’ • Way of measuring wealth / poverty / access to facilities which influence health • New level of analysis / explanation • More use (researchers & policy makers) made of publicly available data • Recognition of importance of society’s basic unit as influence upon members’ well-being

22. Do household definitions matter? Issues of misrepresentation • Labour / resources / consumption / poverty… • Sub-groups • Homeless • Street children • Mobile production systems (fishers, pastoralists, miners, construction) • Migrants • Single person households

23. Do household definitions matter? Increasing use of ‘indicators’ Many indicators calculated at the household level • MDGs • Poverty reduction • Asset indicators • Access to piped water / latrine • Access to key resources (production or communication) • Consumption and expenditure • Including food

24. Do household definitions matter? Question: “What is a household?” Answer: “6 people”

25. Do household definitions matter? I Based on your experience in Tanzania how would you define a household? R A household? [laughs all round] 6 persons. [more laughter] I And then what do you base that on? R Well it’s the government that says when you buy a CHF card it’s for 6 persons…Community Health Fund, the payment scheme. How to define a household? People who eat from the same kitchen. That’s what I would say. From European embassy

26. So what is the issue? Data designers & collectors have: clear ideas about why need something called ‘household’ clear aims clear understanding of household definition BUT what about analysts / users far removed from collection? MIGHT: look at definition and assume this is the unit of production, consumption, socialisation central to the development process MIGHT: not even look at definition because they assume they know what a household is

27. A clue: households in European surveys Household definition usually ‘up to respondent’ GGS: "R is supposed to mention the members of his/her household without any further explanation. If R doubts about whether to include a certain person among the household members or not, consider the following definition….”. FFS: "The definition of a "household" is largely up to the respondent. In case there is any discussion about this, a household is a person or a group of persons who usually live(s) and eat(s) together”.

28. Conceptualising understanding of households ‘the household is an economic unit where the members are linked by an economic relationship such as producing together, sharing the money earned or sharing the home’ The Social Dimensions of Adjustment Priority Survey, Grootaert & Marchant (1991,17) • Economic household (IS & PS)

29. Conceptualising understanding of households • Economic household • Residential household

30. Conceptualising understanding of households “the household was defined as “consisting of one or more persons related or unrelated who make common provision for food and who regularly take their food from the same pot and/or share the same grain store (nkhokwe) or pool their incomes for the purpose of purchasing food." Malawi 1987, 1998 • Economic household • Residential household • Consumption household

31. A simplified example….

34. STATISTICAL HOUSEHOLDS 1 X MARRIED COUPLE 1 X FEMALE-HEADED HOUSEHOLD

35. SOCIO-ECONOMIC HOUSEHOLD

36. An example from 2007 fieldwork in Tanzania Steven Victoria =

37. An example from 2007 fieldwork in Tanzania Steven Victoria = Mary Anna Joy Judy (13) Ernest

38. An example from 2007 fieldwork in Tanzania Steven Victoria Maria (13) = Mary Anna Joy Judy (13) Ernest 1 Male headed household 6 adults and 9 children Dependency ratio =1.5

39. An example from 2007 fieldwork in Longido Steven Victoria Maria (13) Maasai = Mary Anna Joy Judy (13) Ernest 3 households: 1 male & 2 female headed

40. An example from 2007 fieldwork in Longido Sleeping last night (census) Steven Victoria Maria (13) Maasai = Mary Anna Joy Judy (13) Ernest 3 households: 1 male & 2 female headed 3 adults + 6 children (DR= 2) 1 woman+2 children (DR=2) 1 woman + 2 children (DR=2) 1 Male headed household 6 adults and 9 children Dependency ratio =1.5

41. Emerging themes • Single person households • Urban affluent • Household headship? • Gated communities • Migrants and mobility • Low-income rental neighbourhoods • Occupations • Mining • Agribusiness • Construction Where is the cooking pot?