Aqualung

1. Aqualung 15) parallel 2) Ballast 16) piloting 3) bar 17) ROV 4) bathyscaphe 5) bathysphere 18) AUV 6) chronometer 19) Loran-C 7) Decompression sickness 20) heliox 8) echo-sounding 9) fauna 10) flora 11) GPS 12) meridian 13) maritime 14) SCUBA

2. Chapter Two

3. The History of Oceanography – Why Study It? • Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. - 800 A.D.) • The Middle Ages (800 A.D. - 1400) • European Voyages of Discovery (1400 - 1700) • The Birth of Marine Science (1700 – 1900) • Twentieth-Century Marine Science

4. I. Why Study It? A) Three very good reasons to learn the history of oceanography: 1. The history of oceanography is connected to the world’s overall history. 2. Oceanography’s past helps us understand why and how people apply marine sciences today. 3. It is interesting. B) The history of oceanography can be divided into four stages: 1. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. - 800 A.D.)

5. 2. The Middle Ages (800 - 1400) 3. European Voyages of Discovery (1400 - 1700)

6. 4. The Birth and Growth of Modern Marine Science (1700 - present)

7. II. Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring A) Three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean: 1. To obtain food. 2. To discover new lands. 3. As a means of trade. B) The earliest recorded sea voyage appears to be 3200 B.C. under the auspices of Egyptian Pharaoh Snefru.

8. C) Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries 1) The Phoenicians contributed to ocean exploration by establishing the first trade routes throughout the Mediterranean, even as far north as Great Britain.

9. D) Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries 1) The significance of Polynesian seafaring is that it is the earliest known regular, long-distance, open-ocean sailing beyond sight of land. 2) Spreading eastward from Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, Polynesians settled islands in an area of about 26 million square kilometers (10 million square miles).

10. E) Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries 1) The Greeks used references on shore to navigate. This is called piloting. 2) As seafaring advanced they learned to use the sun, constellations, the North Star and sea conditions to navigate in the open ocean. 3) The Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere, not flat. a) Pytheas (314 B.C.) noted that he could predict tides in the Atlantic based on the phases of the moon. 1) He could determine how far North or South one was from the North Star by measuring the angle between the horizon and the North Star. This was a significant improvement in navigation.

11. b) Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C.) is credited with two contributions: • 1) He calculated the Earth’s circumference. 2) He invented the first latitude/longitude system.

12. F. The Greeks Excelled at Mapmaking 1) In 127 B.C., Hipparchus improved Eratosthenes’ maps by inventing the regular grid system. 2) In 450 B.C., Herodotus published a detailed history of Greece’s struggles with the Persian Empire. 3) This work was significant because it was one of the earliest published maps of the world the Greeks knew.

13. 4) In 63 B.C.-24 A.D., Strabo published a 17- book work called Geographic that contained a map expanding knowledge/accuracy about the world.

14. 5) In 100-168 A.D., Ptolemy developed the first known map to show a portion of the Earth as a sphere on flat paper. a) It showed latitude/longitude by dividing the grid into degrees, minutes, and seconds of the arc.

15. G) Latitude/Longitude System 1) The purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system is to identify specific locations on the Earth’s surface. • a) Latitude Lines Also called parallels Run east-west 0º parallel is also called the equator

16. 2) Longitude Lines Also called meridians • Run north-south Prime Meridian is located on the longitude of the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England.

17. 3) Further Accuracy • Degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes, minutes aresubdivided into 60 seconds. 1 Degree of Latitude = 60 nautical miles 1 minute = 1 mile 1 second = 1/60th of a mile ( roughly 90 feet) 1 nautical mile (6076 ft)= 1.15 land miles (5280ft)

19. III. The European Middle Ages A) Also known as the Dark Ages because during this time further advancements in the knowledge of geography and science were suppressed in Europe 1) Little ocean exploration by Europeans was made, only trade continued. B) Viking Explorations and Discoveries 1) The Vikings were the only people with significant exploration taking place in Europe during the Dark Ages: • 2) They established trade routes throughout Britain, Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia.

21. 3) In the 9th century there was a global warming that freed the North Atlantic of ice allowing the Vikings to explore westward discovering Iceland, Greenland, and North America. IV. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries A. The Chinese were very active explorers during the Middle Ages and were responsible for many important contributions. 1) Probably the most important of their discoveries was the magnetic compass dating about 1000 A.D. and in widespread use about 1125. (Europe’s first reference to the compass was in 1190 in a poem, but was not widely used until the 1400s.)

22. 2) By the mid 1400s in China shipbuilding was well established. 3) Chinese ships from that period had central rudders and watertight compartments – these are part of today’s modern ships.

23. V. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa A) The period of 1400-1700 is called the Renaissance. A new interest in long ocean expeditions and travel in the 15th century was motivated by economics, politics and religion. B) Three explorers tried to establish a route to the East around Africa: • 1) The first of these was Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal in the early 1400s. He went down the west coast of Africa, but did not find a route around the Cape of Good Hope.

25. 2) The second was Bartholomeu Dias who completed a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, but did not make it all the way to India. • 3) The third was Vasco da Gamma. In 1497 he led the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope all the way to India. VI. Exploration of the New World A) Christopher Columbus took the first of his four voyages to find a route to Asia in 1492. He believed he’d found Asia when he landed on a Caribbean island.

26. B) Between 1454-1512, Amerigo Vespucci voyaged to South America. He explored much of the east coast, the mouth of the Amazon River, and is credited as the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent. The Americas are named in honor of Vespucci. C) In the early 1500s, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa led an expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. Balboa was the first European to sail in the Pacific. • 1) News that the Pacific lay beyond the Americas renewed the hope that one could sail around the world west-to-east.

27. D) In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world. He had five ships and about 260 men. 1) Magellan died in the Philippines in a fight with islanders.One ship and 18 men completed the journey in 1522. E) The second successful circumnavigation of the world was made in 1577 by Francis Drake. • 1) He left England for the New World with the purpose of raiding Spanish ships and settlements for treasure.

28. 2) Drake returned to England in 1580 where he was knighted for his exploits as well as for bringing back treasure and spices worth a fortune.