Chapter 18

1. Chapter 18 • The four major victors against Napoleon gathered in Vienna in 1814, as did representatives of almost every European state, to consolidate their victory with a treaty imposing their vision of order on Europe as a whole.

2. The Congress of Vienna: A Gathering of Victors • The Victors • Great Britain, Russia, and Austria set peace terms with France in April, and dominated the congress • Legitimacy and Stability • Legitimacy – territories should once more be placed under the control of the old ruling houses of the traditional order • Stability – establishing and maintaining a balance of power within Europe, with particular focus on restraining France • Territorial Arrangements • The powers established strong buffer states along France’s borders • The four main powers took new territories

4. The Congress of Vienna: A Gathering of Victors • The Concert of Europe: Securing the Vienna Settlement • The Holy Alliance • Conceived by Alexander I to establish and safeguard the principles of Christianity included Russia, Austria, and Prussia • The Concert of Europe • Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain created this military alliance in November 1815 to guarantee the Vienna settlement

5. Chapter 18 • As aristocrats and traditional leaders attempted to preserve their conservative worldview, new ideologies exploring the repercussions of the French Revolution and Industrial Revolution emerged to challenge them in Europe.

6. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Conservatism: Restoring the Traditional Order • Burke • He argued monarchy, nobility, and the church should be preserved and they were the best hopes for preserving order • de Maistre and de Bonald • Attacked everything about the French Revolution and Enlightenment as contrary to religion, order, and civilization • Appeal of Conservatism • Epitomized by Metternich’s policies, the Holy Alliance, and the Concert of Europe • Liberalism: Individual Freedom and Political Reform

7. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Sources of Liberalism • The Enlightenment and the theories of John Locke, political thinkers such as Montesquieu, and the French and American Revolutions • Smith • The Wealth of Nations argued that economics had its own natural laws • Malthus and Ricardo • Argued that popluation would always increase more than food supplies, resulting in poverty and death by wars, disease, epidemics, plague, and famine • Iron law of wages • Bentham utilitarianism – all activities and policies should be judged by the standard of usefulness

8. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Mill • Arguing for major social programs to protect workers and even the right to vote for women • Nationalism: A Common Identity and National Liberation • The French Revolution • Revolution transformed the kingdom into a nation • Cultural Nationalism • Organizations and intellectuals created interest in national languages, folk culture, and elevated myths to national histories • Sense of Community • Nationalism offered a sense of strength and unity

9. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • National Liberation and Unification • Nationalism acquired attributes of a religion and became a powerful political force • Romanticism: Freedom, Instinct, and Spontaneity • Rousseau • Stressed feeling, instinct, emotions, and love of nature • “Storm and Stress” Literature • Writers gave weight to inner feelings fully experienced and expressed by sensitive individuals • Reviving the Middle Ages • Romantics expressed a new interest in the Middle Ages

10. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • History • History was literary and exciting, featuring heroic individuals, great accomplishments, and national struggles • Christianity • According to romantic theologians, the important part of religion was the feeling of dependence on an infinite God rather than religious dogma or institutions • Literature • William Wordsworth • Samuel Taylor Coleridge • Art • Leading romantic painters stressed emotional images • Karl Friedrich Schinkel

11. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Music • The music overflowed the bounds of classic forms, becoming freer, more individualistic, and emotional • Connections to Nationalism • Works brought together romantic and nationalistic themes • Connections to Liberalism • Romanticism attracted liberal and revolutionary spirits • Many romantic writers and artists sided with liberal causes • Connections to Conservatism • Certain dimensions of romanticism appealed to conservatives especially the return to the past, the emphasis on Christianity, and the stand against the rationalism of the Enlightenment

12. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Early Socialism: Ending Competition and Inequities • Utopian Socialists • Intellectuals contended that society should be based on cooperation rather than competitive individualism and that property should be owned communally • Saint-Simon • “from each according to his capacity, to each according to his desserts” • Fourier • Advocated doing away with economic competition • Owen • Early in the nineteenth century, he set out to make a model community

13. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Tristan • When Tristan’s abusive husband was awarded their children after a martial separation, she fought back • “Scientific Socialism”: Karl Marx and the Communist Manifesto • Economic Interest • Marx argued that economic interest, more than anything else, drove human behavior • Class Struggle • Divided into the “haves” and the “have-nots” • The haves owned the means of economic production and controlled the state • The have-nots were the exploited laborers

14. Ideologies: How the World Should Be • Industrial Capitalism • The capitalists exploited workers by paying them only subsistence wages rather than compensating them for the true value created by their work • Socialist Society • The elimination of capitalism would end the division of society into classes • All people would lead more varied, cooperative, creative lives • Appeal of Socialism • It attracted intellectuals, students, and workers

15. Chapter 18 • After 1815, the forces representing conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism struggled for influence in Europe; for the time being, conservatism prevailed in domestic and international politics.

16. Restoration and Repression • The Return of the Bourbons in France • Louis XVII • The brother of the guillotined Louis XVI was placed on the throne as Louis XVIII • Charles X • He followed more conservative policies that favored the old aristocracy and the Catholic Church • Reaction and Repression in the German States • Metternich • Used all means police, spies, censorship, and travel restrictions to ensure the status quo • Carlsbad Decrees • Metternich called the princes of the leading German states to Carlsbad and had them draw up a set of harsh decrees

17. Restoration and Repression • Prussia • The conservative, militaristic Hohenzollern kings reigned • The Junkers served as officers in the Prussian army and filled the key posts in the civil service and administration • Restoration in Italy • Conservatism in Russia • Holding the Line in Great Britain • Peterloo Massacre • In 1819 troops charged on a crowd that had assembled in St. Peter’s Fields, outside Manchester, to listen to reform speeches • A number were killed and hundreds injured

18. Chapter 18 • Ireland • In the 1801 Act of Union, Britain formally absorbed Ireland into the United Kingdom • In Spite of the conservative effort to maintain order, demands for political participation spread; in some places revolution or revolts broke out, while in others, people gained major reforms.

19. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • The Greek War for Independence • Liberal Triumphs in Western Europe • The July Revolution in France • In July 1830, Liberals in Paris joined with workers outraged by rising food prices • After three days of haphazard fighting, the insurgents gained the upper hand • Revolution in Belgium • The union forced on Belgium and the Netherlands at Vienna had never been a happy one • National liberation combined with tensions over high food prices fueled a revolt in August 1830 • Switzerland and Spain

20. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • Testing Authority in Eastern and Southern Europe • Poland • In November 1830, a Polish nationalistic movement led by students and army cadets tried to end Russian rule • Italy • Carbonari – charcoal burners • In 1831, liberal and nationalist revolutions broke out in central Italy • Liberal Demands in Great Britain • Reform Bill of 1832 • It lowered property qualifications and redistributed electoral districts

21. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • Antislavery • In 1833, Parliament abolished slavery in Britain’s colonies • Economic and Social Reforms • New laws aimed to ease some of the disturbing harshness of industrial employment • Corn Laws • Imposed tariffs on grain imports • In 1846, the repeal of the Corn Laws • Irish Famine • In 1845, a new, unknown fungus attacked potato plants, ruining the crop • The crops failed year after year

22. A Wave of Revolution and Reform C. 1835 CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH THE STAGES OF LIFE • Chartism • In 1838, The People’s Charter called for universal male suffrage, election by secret ballot, and the removal of property qualifications for office • The Dam Bursts: 1848

24. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • The “Glory Days” • France • In Paris, more than 40 percent of the workforce were without a job • National Workshops • Laborers were assigned to hastily arranged projects • Surplus workers were paid almost as much as the employed ones to remain idle • Austria • After news of the Paris events arrived in Vienna, Austrian students, middle class reformers, and workers charged into the streets, clamoring for an end to Metternich’s system

25. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • Hungary • The Magyars demanded national autonomy from Austria • Prussia • Middle-class liberals and artisans demonstrating in the streets of Berlin • Frankfurt assembly • A popularly elected assembly representing all German states to meet at Frankfurt to construct a liberal German nation • Italy • Several states established new constitutions • The Return to Order

27. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • June Days in France • For four days, war raged in the streets of Paris between the working class, armed with National Guard rifles, and the regular army • Austria and Hungary • The revolutionaries’ inexperience gave the Habsburgs the upper hand • Prussia • The revolutionaries proved no match for the king’s forces • What Happened?

28. A Wave of Revolution and Reform • Internal Divisions • After revolutionary forces gained power, the interests of the various groups proved too divergent for the alliances to endure • Holding Power: Liberalism VS. Nationalism • Liberal and nationalistic forces worked best together when out of power; in power, they often stood at cross-purposes • Conservatism • With industrialization just beginning to emerge in central Europe, the middle and working classes were still weak • Force • The leaders of the forces of order marshaled their resources, drew on their own armies and those of allies, and overcame the divided revolutionary forces