Quantitative Research Methodology Lectures_Muluken Teshome

1. College of Medicine and Health Sciences Department of Public Health Lecture: Quantitative Research Methodologyfor MPH in Rh Students BY Muluken Teshome (Assistant professor of Epidemiology and Biostatistics) June/ 2024

2. Topics • Introduction to research • Problem identification and conceptualization

3. Introduction to research • Sub-topics • Definition of research • Types of research • Overview of research process • Characteristics of research • Research cycle

4. What is research?

5. Definition of research • Research is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain question or solve a problem. • Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. • It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem.

6. Why Research? • There are several reasons why research is undertaken: to… ♦ address gaps in knowledge ♦ expand knowledge ♦ improve practice through new ideas, new insights into methods ♦ make more informed choices/decisions based on available information ♦ create data-base for policy-making as research provides an understanding of the factors affecting desired outcomes ♦ helps to build skills – organizational, analytical, writing, presentation, time management, etc. • Research is not a luxury but necessity!!!

7. Research • What • Why • How • Whom • When • Where ?

8. Health Research and Health System Research Health Research • A systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to solve a health problem or generate new knowledge Health System Research • It is a component of health research. • Research that supports health development has come to be known as HSR. • Is ultimately concerned with improving the health of people and communities, by enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the health system as an integral part of the overall process of socio-economic development, with full involvement of all partners

9. HSR cont… • (Effectiveness, quality, and costs of services: development and distribution of resources for care ) • Health System- all public and private sectors/institutions which directly influence and support the health of people, embedded in the wider environmental context(geographical, socio-economic, cultural, political, demographic, epidemiological factors) • The major objective of HSR is to provide health managers at all levels, as well as community members, with the relevant information they need to make decisions on health-related problems they are facing

10. Research must be: • Purposeful: what do you want to be able to contribute? • Targeted: Who are the audiences? • Credible: consider sources of information, method of data collection, personnel involved… • Timely: Is the information needed? • Research is done to find solutions to health problems.

11. Types of research • There are various bases to classify research. • Research can be classified in terms of: • Objective/goal/purpose/scope of research, • Population, • Approaches/nature/analysis of research, • Sources of data, • The time in which the research is carried out(time frame), • Designs, • Fields of study.

12. Based on objective/goal/purpose/scope of research • Basic/fundamental/pure/theoretical research • Its primary objective is the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables • Basic research in health is necessary to generate new knowledge and technologies to deal with major unresolved health problems • Basic research provides the foundation for further research, sometimes for applied research.

13. Based on objective/goal/purpose/scope of research… • Applied research • Is a research that seeks to solve practical problems • Concentrates on finding solutions to immediate problems of practical nature. • In health, applied research is necessary to identify priority problems and to design and evaluate policies and programs that will deliver the greatest health benefits, making optimal use of available resources.

14. Based on population • Individual and sub-individual: • Biomedical research (Basic biological processes, structure and function of the human body, pathological mechanisms). Example: Experiments in cell culture and in vivo demonstrate that treatment with statins reduces production of Abeta, the main component of senile plaques, a feature of Alzheimer’s Disease. • Clinical research (Efficacy of preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic procedures, natural history of diseases). Example: studying the effectiveness of coartem in treating malaria.

15. Based on population • Population: • Epidemiologic research (Frequency, distribution, and determinants of health). Example: Prevalence and associated factors of cigarette smoking. • Health Systems research (Effectiveness, quality, and costs of services: development and distribution of resources for care ). Example: Study of the underlying reasons for emergency hospital admission of patients with diabetes.

16. Based on approaches/nature/analysis of research • Quantitative research: • Is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. • It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. • Is more concerned with questions about: • how much? How many? How often? To what extent? etc.

17. Based on approaches/nature/analysis of research… • Qualitative research: • Is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. • Is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with why? How? In what way? • Involves finding out what people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel • This kind of information is subjective. • It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers • Especially useful to understand underlying behaviours, attitudes, perceptions, and culture

18. Qualitative vs. Quantitative • Why? • How? • Understanding behavior/insight • Non-numeric • Subjective • Inductive • Non-generalizable • Small sample • Generate hypothesis • How many? How much? How often? • Quantification/statistical analysis • Numeric • Objective • Deductive • Generalizable • Large sample • Test hypothesis

19. Based on Sources of data • Primary research (field research): • Data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first hand information. • Secondary research (desk research): • Developed from secondary resources which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

20. Based on the time in which the research is carried out(time frame) • Longitudinal research (Diachronic research): • It is monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. • It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how evolve over time. • Cross-Sectional research (Synchronous research): • Used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

21. Based on research design • Experimental: • Involves manipulating variables to test cause-and-effect relationships. • Non-experimental: • Involves observing and describing phenomena without manipulating variables.

22. Based on fields of study • Based on fields of study research can be classified as: • Natural sciences research • Social science research • Educational research • Behavioral science research • Health science research

23. Other research types • Action research • Action research is a style of research, rather than a specific methodology • In action research, the researchers work with the people and for the people, rather than undertake research on them. • it is focused on generating solutions to problems identified by the people who are going to use the results of research. • Action research is not synonymous with qualitative research. • But it typically draws on qualitative methods such as interviews and observations.

24. Overview of research process Quantitative Research-Linear • CONCEPTUAL PHASE • Formulating and delimiting the problem • Reviewing the literature • Developing a theoretical framework • Identifying the Research Variables • Formulating Hypotheses

25. Overview of research process… • DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE • Selecting a Research Design • Specifying the Population • Operationalizing the Variables • Conducting the pre-test/Making Revisions • EMPIRICAL PHASE • Selecting the Sample • Collecting the Data • Organizing Data for Analysis

26. Overview of research process… • ANALYTIC PHASE • Analyzing the Data • Interpreting the Results • DISSEMINATION PHASE • Communicating findings

27. Overview of research process… Qualitative Research-Circular and Flexible • Define/Clarify Broad Topic • Review of the Literature? • Identify Site/Setting • Obtain Access • Obtain and Test Equipment • Begin Data Collection/Analysis • Identify Themes/Categories • Triangulation/Saturation • Formulate Hypotheses/Theories • Communicate Findings

28. Major Phases in the Research Process • Selecting and defining the problem in need of investigation • Selecting a research design • Collecting data • Analyzing data • Utilizing the Findings

29. Research Characteristics • Originates with a question or problem. • Requires clear articulation of a goal. • Follows a specific plan or procedure. • Often divides main problem into sub problems. • Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis. • Accepts certain critical assumptions. • Requires collection and interpretation of data. • Cyclical (helical) in nature.

30. Research Cycle

31. Topic: Problem identification and conceptualization • Sub topics: • Research problem, question and hypothesis • Formulating/setting objectives • Introduction • Background information • Statement of the problem • Literature review • Conceptual framework • Justifying the research • Significance of the study

32. RESEARCH PROBLEM/TOPIC • A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher faces (experiences) in the context of both theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same problem. Identify problem Evaluate Formulate it to research problem (broad/general)

33. How do we choose a research Problem/topic? • Career development • Priority research areas • Relevance • Avoidance of duplication • Feasibility • Political acceptability • Applicability • Urgency of data needed • Ethical acceptability • Resource availability

34. Sources of Research Problems/topic • Observation • Literature reviews • Nursing practice • Professional conferences • Experts-Researcher and peer interaction • Professional experience • Inference from theory • Technical and social changes • Research priorities

35. Research Problem… • Factors guiding the selection of a Problem/topic: • The possibility of the research • The uniqueness of the research • The scope of the research • The profitability of the research • The theoretical value of the research • The practical value of the research • The research topic should be specific and clear. • The topic should indicate the WHO, WHY, WHERE clearly. It is the focus of your research

36. Research problem… • A good problem is usually a compromise between conciseness and explicitness. • Problem should be comprehensive enough to indicate the nature of the research • One good way to cut the length of problem/title is to avoid words that add nothing to a reader's understanding, such as "Studies on...,“ "Investigations...," or "Research on Some Problems in...."

37. FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM • The researcher first must find any social, economic, business, health etc. problem and formulate into the research problem. • Problem formulation, from the researcher point of view, represents translating the managerial, social, health and other problems into a research problem • The problem identified initially may be stated in broad general way and then gradually the ambiguity will be resolved.

38. FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM… • The feasibility of a possible particular solution has to be considered before formulating the problem. • The best way of understanding a problem is to discuss it with colleagues or those having some experience in the matter. • Formulation- resolve ambiguity, understand, colleagues, experienced… • Problem formulation means understanding problems and rephrasing to meaningful statement from analysis point of view.

39. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM • The factors are to be considered in the selection of a research problem both the criteria external and personal. • External criteria have to do with such matters as novelty and importance for the field availability of data and method, and institutional or administrative cooperation • Personal criteria involved such considerations as interest, training, cost and time, etc. • Thus criteria for the selection of the problem suggested by Good and Scates are as follows:

40. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM… • Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication • The question of novelty or newness is not merely one of duplication of earlier investigations. • Importance for the field represented and implementation • This criterion of importance in choice of a problem involves such matters as significance for the field involved, timelines and practical value in term of application and implementation of the results. • Interest, intellectual curiosity and drive • One of the personal motives of research most frequently mentioned by scientists themselves is pure curiosity, accompanied by genuine interest and a derived satisfaction and enjoyment.

41. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM…. • Availability of data and method • The data under consideration must meet certain standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability • Special equipment and working conditions • Sponsorship and administrative cooperation • It is a common practice for the thesis to be sponsored by a faculty adviser in whose area of specialization the problem lies. • Costs and returns • The candidate must consider carefully his own financial resources in the light of such facilities and assistance as can be provided by the institution. • Time factor • As a general rule the minimum amount of graduate work for the Master’s degree is one year, and for the Doctor’s degree three years • Historical, experimental case and longitudinal genetic studies frequently require more time than the several types of normative survey work.

42. Example of research problem/topics • Prevalence of leishmaniasis among laborers migrating to Metema and Humera, Northern Ethiopia • A study on the implementation of infection prevention guidelines among HCWs in Ethiopia. • Human immunodeficiency virus prevalence among most at risk populations. • Which of the above topic is good?

43. Formulating/setting research objective • A research objective is a statement that clearly depicts the goal to be achieved by a research project. • In other words, the objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study.

44. Why should research objectives be developed? The formulation of objectives will help you to: • Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials) • Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding & solving the problem you have identified (to establish the limits of the study) • Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. • Facilitate the development of research methods • Orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data

45. When should the objectives of a research project be prepared? • After the statement of the problem is developed • Before the methodology for the study is planned. • Objectives follow from the statement of the problem • Show the precise goal of the study, help guide the development of the research • Methodology, & orient the collection, analysis & interpretation of data.

46. Characteristics of good objectives Objectives should be: • Coherent and logical sequence • Feasible • Realistic, considering local conditions • Clearly expressed in measurable terms • Phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study • Defined in operational terms that are specific enough to be measured

47. Objective should be stated • Objectives should be stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough to be measured: Examples: • To determine …, • To identify…., • To compare…, • To verify…, • To calculate…, • To describe…, • To explore ( more for qualitative)… etc

48. Do not use vague non-action verbs such as: • To appreciate … • To understand… • To believe… • To assess …(possible for general objective) • To know

49. What formats can be used for stating research objectives? • The format chosen depends on the type of study that will be undertaken. • Research objectives can be stated as: • Positive sentence: • If the study is descriptive or exploratory in nature, then objectives are stated in the form of positive sentences or questions.“The objective of this study is to assess …” B) ResearchQuestions: formulated when insight into the problem being studied is not sufficient. “The objectives of this study are to answer the following questions …” Example, Does post-menopausal hormone replacement therapy predispose women to develop endometrial cancer?

50. Objectives cont… • Hypothesis: if the study is explanatory/analytic, hypothesis may be proposed. Requires sufficient knowledge of the problem to be able to predict relationships among factors which then can be explicitly tested. “The objective of this study is to verify the following hypothesis...” E.g. Post-menopausal women who received hormone replacement therapy are more likely to develop endometrial cancer than post-menopausal women who did not receive such therapy.