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  1. Different Approaches of Soil Stabilization: A Comprehensive Review Zeinab Abayazid1, Siham Farrag1 1 Middle East College, Knowledge Oasis Muscat, Oman Abstract. Construction of roads, dams, foundations for various structures, and a variety of other engineering constructions in areas with poor or low-grade soils is a big challenge for engineers. Geotechnical technologies may often improve subgrade soils that are inadequate in their natural form. Soil stabilization is the process of raising soil carrying capacity by improving shear strength characteris- tics. It is necessary when the available soil for the building is insufficient to sup- port structural loads. Several methods can accomplish soil stabilization. Various approaches have been developed over the years to enhance soil stability, strength, and durability. This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of different soil stabili- zation techniques, including traditional and emerging methods, the principles, applications, advantages, and limitations of each approach, along with notable case studies. The information presented in this review will be a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and practitioners involved in soil stabilization pro- jects. Keywords: Mechanical Stabilization, Chemical Stabilization, Geopolymer Sta- bilization, Self-healing materials, Biotechnical stabilization. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  2. 2 Table of Contents 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 3 1.1 Objectives of Soil Stabilization ............................................................ 3 2 Overview of Different Soil Stabilization Approaches .................................... 4 2.1 Traditional Approaches / Mechanical Stabilization ............................... 6 2.2 Chemical Stabilization ......................................................................... 7 2.3 Geo-Synthetic Stabilization ................................................................. 8 2.4 2.5 Electrochemical Stabilization Techniques ............................................ 9 Biotechnical Stabilization .................................................................. 11 3 Technical and Practical Challenges ............................................................ 13 4 Emerging Approaches Stabilization ............................................................ 14 4.1 Geopolymer Stabilization .................................................................. 14 4.2 Nanotechnology-Based Stabilization .................................................. 14 4.3 4.4 Microbial-Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) ................................ 15 Biopolymer Stabilization ................................................................... 15 4.5 Fiber Reinforcement .......................................................................... 16 4.6 Self-Healing Materials ....................................................................... 16 5 Comparative Analysis of Approaches of Soil Stabilization.......................... 17 6 Successful Soil Stabilization Projects Using Various Techniques ................ 18 7 Acknowledgment ............................................................................................... 20 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 20 References ......................................................................................................... 20 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  3. 3 1 Introduction Natural disasters are a global phenomenon, differing only in scale according to location, and their impacts can be utterly destructive to the environment and the people who live in it. Significant damage to buildings, highways, and major roadways has been seen in regions where swelling clays exist [1-2]. The necessity for soil strengthening developed when it was discovered that certain weak parts of the soil that were impeding the move- ment of man and his goods might be strengthened by combining with specific elements known as stabilizing agents, such as limestone. Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic materials, gases, liquids, and numerous species supporting Earth life. Soil constantly changes due to various physical, chemical, and biological activities, including weathering and erosion. Therefore, most of the sta- bilization has to be undertaken in soft soils (silty, clayey peat or organic soils) [3]. For thousands of years, soil stabilization has been practised. Soil stabilization is the most common term for any physical, chemical, biological, or combination of any approaches used to assure the enhancement of specific features of a natural soil to satisfy the desired engineering criteria. 1.1 Objectives of Soil Stabilization Since soil stabilization plays a crucial role in civil engineering projects, especially those involving the construction of foundations, roads, embankments, and other structures, here are some key reasons why soil stabilization is essential in civil engineering [4-6]. 1.Settlement Control: Uncontrolled soil settlement can cause substantial structural damage, including structural collapse, fissures, and uneven set- tlements. Compaction, grouting, and chemical stabilization are soil stabili- zation technologies that help manage and limit settlement by increasing the density of the soil, decreasing its compressibility, and enhancing its capac- ity to carry loads uniformly. 2.Enhanced Load-Bearing Capacity: Soil stabilization procedures assist in enhancing the strength and stability of weak or loose soils, allowing them to withstand larger loads without severe settlement or collapse. This is es- pecially important in constructing foundations for buildings, bridges, and other structures when the soil may not have enough inherent strength to withstand the imposed loads. 3.Slope Stability: Soil stabilization techniques are critical in controlling and increasing slope stability and preventing landslides, and slope collapses. Soil nailing, slope reinforcement, and retaining walls all offer structural support, promote soil cohesion, and lower the danger of slope failure. This is especially significant in road building, mining, and steep terrains where slope stability is critical. 4.Erosion Control: Soil stabilization is critical in erodible environments to avoid soil particle loss due to wind or water action. The soil becomes more Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  4. 4 resistant to erosion when it is stabilized, assuring the long-term stability of embankments, slopes, and other earth constructions. This is critical for in- frastructure projects in areas with excessive rainfall, steep hills, or near bod- ies of water. 5.Enhance Durability and Longevity: Soil stabilizing techniques aim to im- prove the resilience and lifespan of infrastructure projects. It ensures that buildings remain stable and functional throughout their intended life by in- creasing soil attributes such as strength, stability, and erosion resistance. This objective reduces the maintenance requirement while enhancing the specified facilities' overall performance. 6.Environmental Considerations: Soil stabilizing procedures can also be beneficial to the environment. Stabilizing polluted soils, for example, can prevent contaminants from seeping into groundwater or neighbouring eco- systems. Furthermore, adopting soil stabilization technologies can reduce the demand for virgin materials, encourage using locally accessible soil re- sources, and lessen the environmental effect of carrying and disposing of extra dirt. 7.Cost and Time Efficiency: Soil stabilization has the potential to cut build- ing costs and timelines dramatically. Stabilization techniques reduce the need for unnecessary earthwork and resources by enhancing the qualities of existing soil rather than depending on costly soil replacement or excava- tion. This results in cost savings, shorter construction timelines, and im- proved project efficiency. Overall, soil stabilization is a vital part of civil engineering that assures infrastructure projects' long-term stability, durability, and safety. In addition, it aids in sustainable and resilient development by increasing soil engineering characteristics. 2 Overview of Different Soil Stabilization Approaches It is vital to highlight that site-specific variables, soil properties, project needs, and eco- nomic considerations determine the choice of a particular soil stabilization strategy. Engineering skills and soil testing are required to determine the best approach for a given project. Several soil stabilization systems are used in civil engineering, each with benefits and applicability depending on soil conditions, project needs, and budget. Here's a rundown of several typical soil stabilizing procedures figure 1 [7-15]. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  5. 5 Compaction Vibro-compaction Traditional/Mechanical Approaches Dynamic Consolidation Preloading and Surcharge Soil Stabilization Grids Lime Stabilization Cement Stabilization Fly Ash Stabilization Chemical stabilization Soil Stabilization Approaches Bitumen Stabilization Polymer Stabilization Geotextiles Geogrids Geo-synthetic stabilization Geocells Electrochemical stabilization techniques Geocomposites Vegetation Soil Bioengineering Biodegradable Erosion Control Products Biotechnical stabilization Riparian and Wetland Stabilization Living Retaining Walls and Green Structures Figure 1: Soil Stabilization Approaches Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  6. 6 2.1 Traditional Approaches / Mechanical Stabilization Mechanical stabilization is a form of soil stabilization that uses mechanical means to enhance the engineering qualities of soil. Its primary goal is to improve the soil's den- sity, compaction, and load-bearing ability. Mechanical stabilising methods are widely utilised for granular soils like sands and gravels. Here are some examples of common mechanical stabilizing techniques [8-12]. 1.Compaction: is a common mechanical stabilizing method. It entails deliv- ering mechanical energy to soil through rollers, compactors, or vibratory equipment to raise its density. Compaction minimizes air spaces between soil particles, increasing load-bearing capacity and decreasing settling. It works well on granular soils and is commonly used in road construction, foundations, and embankments. 2.Vibro-compaction: also known as dynamic compaction, is a type of tech- nique. It entails sending energy into the soil using vibratory probes, forcing the particles to reorganize and densify. Vibrocompaction works well on loose or granular soils with poor cohesiveness, such as sandy or silty soils. It is widely utilized in locations with poor soil conditions to increase load- bearing capacity and decrease settling. 3.Dynamic Consolidation: is another mechanical stabilization technique Applied to loose or compressible soils. It entails dumping large weights or impact devices onto the soil surface repeatedly. Over time, the dynamic energy helps to compress and densify the soil. Dynamic consolidation is often used in building embankments, foundations, and land reclamation projects to improve the load-bearing capacity of loose or weak soils. 4.Preloading and Surcharge: approaches that include introducing extra loads to the soil over a long period. Over time, this approach helps to con- solidate and compress the soil, minimizing settlement and boosting load- bearing capacity. It is typically utilized before construction for soft or com- pressible soils, such as clayey or silty soils. In addition, temporary fill ma- terials or weighted constructions can be used to add additional load. 5.Soil Stabilization Grids: Soil stabilization grids, Geogrids and geocells are synthetic materials composed of plastic or composite materials. They are inserted into the soil layers to give support and stability. The grids are made up of open-cell structures that interlock with soil particles to provide a sturdy and load-distributing system. Retaining walls, slope stabilization, and erosion management are all frequent applications for soil stabilization grids. Mechanical stabilizing solutions are often cost-effective and efficient since they depend on mechanical forces to manipulate existing soil. However, the appropriateness of these procedures is determined by the unique soil conditions, project needs, and engineering factors. Proper site inspection and analysis are required to determine the best mechani- cal stabilizing solution for a specific project. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  7. 7 2.2 Chemical Stabilization It is a soil stabilization technology that uses chemical additions to enhance soil engi- neering qualities. It seeks to alter soil properties such as strength, stability, and perme- ability by chemical reactions or interactions with soil particles. Chemical stabilization is typical for cohesive soils such as clayey and silty soils. Here are some examples of typical chemical stabilizing procedures [10-14,16]. 1.Lime Stabilization: is a common chemical stabilizing approach. It entails adding lime to the soil, generally in the form of quicklime (calcium oxide) or hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide). Lime interacts with the soil's clay minerals, causing them to expand and enhance compaction and load-bear- ing ability. Lime stabilization also minimizes clayey soil flexibility and swelling potential. The pozzolanic reaction occurs when lime reacts with soil. Lime stabilization is effective for a wide range of soil types and is often utilized in road building and expanded soil stabilization. Figure 2 shows the impact of lime on the Plasticity of soil. Figure 2: The impact of lime on the Plasticity of soil 2.Cement Stabilization: is similar to lime stabilization, however instead of lime, cement is added to the soil. Cement combines soil particles and water to generate a cementitious matrix, strengthening and stabilising the soil. In addition, the hydration process of cement produces calcium silicate hy- drates and other chemicals that bind soil particles together. Cement stabili- zation is widely utilized for various soil types, including clayey soils, and is especially useful for road building, airport pavements, and foundation repair. 3.Fly Ash Stabilization: As a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants, it can be utilized to stabilize soil. It is a pozzolanic substance that forms cementitious compounds when combined with lime and water. Fly ash sta- bilization combines fly ash with soil to increase its strength and decrease its swelling potential. Fly ash stabilization is appropriate for various soil types, including clayey and silty soils, and is frequently employed in large- scale building projects. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  8. 8 4.Bitumen Stabilization: Adding bitumen (a petroleum-based binder) to the soil is known as soil/bitumen stabilization. Bitumen covers soil particles, increasing cohesion and decreasing permeability. Bitumen stabilization en- hances the treated soil's strength, stability, and water resistance. It's widely utilized in road building, especially in places with high moisture content or poor soils. 5.Polymer Stabilization: involves the use of polymer additives to change the characteristics of soil. Polymers can strengthen soil, reduce flexibility, and boost cohesion. They can be combined with the soil in powdered or liquid form. Polymer stabilization is frequently used to increase cohesive soils' stability, swelling, and workability. In some circumstances, different chemical additives and stabilizers are utilized. For example, sodium silicate, often known as water glass, can be used to stabilize and re- duce erosion in sandy soils. Other additions, such as calcium chloride, potassium chlo- ride, or sodium chloride, can stabilize soils in cold climates by avoiding or lowering freezing points. Chemical stabilization techniques need careful consideration of the chemical additive's kind and dose and suitable mixing and curing procedures. In addition, soil testing, la- boratory analysis, and engineering skills are required to pick the appropriate chemical stabilization approach and achieve the desired soil improvement. 2.3 Geo-Synthetic Stabilization Geo-synthetic stabilization is a method of soil stabilization that involves using geosyn- thetic materials to improve soil strength, stability, and performance. Geotextiles, ge- ogrids, geocells, and geocomposites are examples of geosynthetic materials made from polymers as shown in figure 3. They are embedded in the soil or installed at the soil- structure contact to provide reinforcement and enhance soil properties. Geosynthetic stabilization has various advantages, including better slope stability and erosion man- agement. Here are a few examples of typical geosynthetic stabilizing techniques. For example, water glass can stabilize sandy soils and reduce erosion [11,17-20]. Figure 3: examples of geosynthetic (a) geogrid; (b) geonet; (c) geocell; (d) geostrip; (e )geomat; (f) geospacer. (Markiewicz et al, 2022) Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  9. 9 1.Geotextiles are synthetic fibre-based permeable fabrics. They are fre- quently employed in soil stabilizing applications. Geotextiles can act as a barrier between soil layers, enabling water to pass through while keeping fine and coarse soil particles from combining. They also filter water by trapping dirt particles while allowing it to drain. Geotextiles are often used in road building, retaining walls, erosion control, and strengthening em- bankment. 2.Geogrids are geosynthetic materials composed of open-grid polymer struc- tures such as polyester or polypropylene. They give the soil tensile strength and reinforcement. There are two types of geogrids: uniaxial and biaxial. Uniaxial geogrids are only strong in one direction, but biaxial geogrids are strong in both directions. Geogrids are often used for soil reinforcement, slope stability, retaining walls, and soft soil reinforcement. 3.Geocells: also known as cellular confinement systems, are three-dimen- sional geosynthetic structures. They comprise interconnecting cells or chambers containing soil, aggregate, or other infill materials. Geocells con- strain infill materials, improving their stability and load-bearing capability. They are frequently used for slope stability, erosion control, and soil rein- forcement. Geocells are very useful in road and railway embankments, load support platforms, and slope erosion management.. 4.Geocomposites: geosynthetic materials comprising two or more geosyn- thetic components that work together to accomplish numerous tasks. A ge- ocomposite, for example, may consist of a geotextile layer linked to a ge- omembrane layer. Geocomposites can combine filtration, drainage, separa- tion, and reinforcing into a single product. They are often employed in ap- plications requiring numerous soil stabilizing functions, such as landfill lin- ers, subsurface drainage systems, and erosion control systems. Geosynthetic stabilization systems provide benefits such as faster construction, lower material needs, enhanced durability, and environmental sustainability. They are adapt- able and may be employed in a variety of soil situations. However, adequate design, installation, and quality control are critical for assuring geosynthetic stabilizing sys- tems' efficacy and long-term performance. For effective geosynthetic stabilization pro- jects, engineering competence and respect to industry norms and guidelines are required 2.4 Electrochemical Stabilization Techniques Also known as electrokinetic stabilization or electroosmotic stabilization, is a method of soil stabilization that employs electrochemical processes to enhance the engineering qualities of soil. It uses an electric field to generate electrochemical reactions inside the soil, changing its physical and chemical properties. Electrochemical stabilization is commonly utilized for fine-grained soils like silts and clays, and it can bring benefits including greater strength, reduced compressibility, and better permeability. Here's a rundown of the electrochemical stabilization procedure [21-25]. Figure 4 shows the mechanisms of electrokinetic treatment[51] Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  10. 10 Figure 4: The mechanisms of electrokinetic treatment (Yoshida et al, 2001). The movement of pore water inside the soil under the influence of an electric field is the fundamental basis of electrochemical stabilization. Positive ions in the pore water travel toward the negative electrode when a direct current is supplied across electrodes implanted into the soil, whereas negative ions migrate toward the positive electrode. Water movement causes flow and electroosmotic pressure inside the soil. Electrochemical reactions occur at the electrodes and within the soil when pore water travels. Water is electrolyzed into oxygen, hydrogen ions, and hydroxide ions at the anode (positive electrode). Hydrogen ions flow toward the cathode (negative electrode) along with the pore water cations. Hydroxide ions react with the cations at the cathode, precipitating insoluble substances such as metal hydroxides. These reactions can aid in soil stabilization by changing the chemical composition and increasing particle floccu- lation. The electrochemical processes and electroosmotic flow have numerous soil-im- proving impacts. The movement of cations and hydroxide ions aids in the flocculation of clay particles, lowering their flexibility and boosting soil strength and workability. In addition, the production of insoluble compounds within the soil matrix can fill holes and limit permeability, increasing soil resistance to water movement. Electrochemical stabilization can also aid in the consolidation of clayey soils by promoting pore water transport, lowering compressibility, and hastening the consolidation process. Electrochemical stabilization success is dependent on suitable electrode arrangement. Depending on the project's needs, electrodes are normally placed vertically or horizon- tally into the soil mass. Several electrodes with alternating anodes and cathodes are utilised to generate a flow route for the electric current and produce homogeneous elec- troosmotic flow across the soil volume. The electrode materials, such as stainless steel, graphite, or titanium, are chosen for their compatibility with the soil and corrosion re- sistance. Electrochemical stabilization is most commonly used on fine-grained soils such as silts and clays. It is frequently utilized when other traditional stabilizing procedures are in- effective or economically impracticable. However, soil mineralogy, pH, moisture con- tent, pore water chemistry, and the soil's electrical conductivity can all impact its effi- ciency. Therefore, proper site investigation, laboratory testing, and design are required to establish the viability and optimize the use of electrochemical stabilization. While electrochemical stabilization has demonstrated potential in laboratory and field testing, Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  11. 11 it is still regarded as a rather specialized and new method. More research and develop- ment are required to fine-tune the process, increase its efficiency, and broaden its ap- plication in various soil conditions and engineering projects. 2.5 Biotechnical Stabilization Also known as bioengineering or bio-technical stabilization, is a method of soil stabi- lization that employs live plant materials and other organic components to increase soil stability and erosion resistance. The main idea of this mechanism depend on that the roots are strong in tension while soils are strong in compression. Roots enhance soil shear strength and residual strength through reinforcement of soil structure Figure 5: Slope stability mechanism of bio-technical stabilization (Coppin & Richards (1990). Combining biological and technical concepts entails generating ecologically friendly and long-lasting stabilizing solutions. Slope stability, erosion management, and natural habitat restoration are all popular applications for biotechnical stabilization systems. An overview of biotechnical stabilization approaches is provided below [6-7,26-28]. 1.Vegetation: Vegetation is the significant component of biotechnical stabil- ity. Plant roots play an important role in soil stabilization by binding soil particles together, improving soil structure, and boosting erosion resistance. In addition, the roots assist to anchor and cohere the soil. The individual site circumstances, such as soil type, climate, slope aspect, and project aims determine the vegetation chosen. Deep-rooted plants, such as grasses, bushes, or trees, are frequently used to improve stability. 2.Soil Bioengineering: Soil bioengineering is a biotechnical stabilization ap- proach that combines live plants with other organic elements to stabilize slopes and reduce erosion. Live fascines, brush layers, and live crib walls Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  12. 12 are used. Bundling live cuttings of woody plants and putting them horizon- tally or vertically down the slope is what live fascines are. Brush layers use a layering of branches, twigs, and other organic materials to impede water flow and retain silt. To build a secure structure, live crib walls are built with living vegetation and structural materials such as gabion baskets or timber logs. 3.Biodegradable Erosion Control Products: Biodegradable erosion control items like blankets or mulches are frequently utilized in biotechnical stabi- lization. These natural fibers, straw, or coconut coir materials are applied to the soil surface to give temporary erosion protection. They aid in the retention of moisture, the reduction of water velocity, and the stabilization of the soil surface until the plant can establish itself. These compounds break down and become part of the soil over time, assisting in the develop- ment of plants. Figure 6 shows examples of Erosion Control Products Figure 6: examples of Erosion Control Products 4.Riparian and Wetland Stabilization: Biotechnical stabilization tech- niques are often used in riparian regions and wetlands to improve soil sta- bility, reduce erosion, and restore ecosystems. These strategies frequently entail the use of native vegetation that has been tailored to the unique hy- drological and biological requirements of the riparian or wetland habitat. Planting native plants helps to stabilize the soil, filter pollutants, enhance water quality, and create a suitable home for animals. 5.Living RetainingWalls and Green Structures: Green structures and live retaining walls combine engineering structures with growing plants to offer stability and erosion control. These structures include gabion walls, crib walls, and geocellular systems filled with soil and seeded with plants. The live flora on the buildings adds stability, erosion resistance, and aesthetic value to the project. Environmental sustainability, beauty, and long-term ecological benefits are all ad- vantages of biotechnical stabilization. It encourages the development of natural ecosys- tems and habitats, increases biodiversity, and minimizes dependency on traditional en- gineered constructions. On the other hand, proper site evaluation, plant selection, and management are crucial for the success of biotechnological stabilization programs. Fur- thermore, depending on the site-specific variables and project needs, the performance and efficacy of various strategies may vary. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  13. 13 3 Technical and Practical Challenges When applying various soil stabilizing technologies, addressing technical and practical problems is critical. Here are some frequent issues related with various soil stabilizing procedures, as well as solutions to them [7,24,10,18,26]. 1.Mechanical Stabilization: Its usefulness is limited in cohesive soils or weak subgrades. Solution: Before mechanical stabilization, pre-treatment procedures such as soil compaction, preloading, or surcharging can be em- ployed to enhance soil strength. To improve the tensile strength of the soil, soil reinforcing technologies such as geosynthetics or geogrids can be used. 2.Chemical Stabilization: Soil composition and reactivity vary. Solution: Based on the unique soil parameters, thorough soil testing and analysis should be performed to establish the right kind and dose of stabilizing agents (such as lime, cement, or fly ash). Field trials and monitoring can aid in determining the success of a treatment and adjusting it as needed. 3.Geosynthetic Stabilization: Proper installation and anchoring of geosyn- thetic materials. Solution: Qualified workers should be used to guarantee proper geosynthetic installation and anchoring. Adequate testing, quality control, and adherence to manufacturer's specifications are required. Proper site preparation and soil compaction are also required to enhance the effi- cacy of geosynthetic stabilization.. 4.Electrochemical Stabilization: Applicability is limited to certain soil types and circumstances. Solution: To determine the appropriateness of electrochemical stabilization for the soil in issue, extensive soil testing and analysis are necessary. Detailed site inspections and geotechnical studies aid in identifying pollutants, electrochemical reactions, and other issues that may impair the success of this strategy. For efficient application, engineer- ing skills and specialized equipment are required. 5.Biotechnical Stabilization: The establishment and maintenance of vegeta- tion for long-term stability. Solution: It is critical to pick appropriate plant species that are well-suited to the site circumstances. To enhance plant de- velopment, proper soil preparation, including soil amendment and erosion control techniques, should be applied. Regular monitoring, maintenance, and erosion control activities are required to ensure biotechnical stabiliza- tion's long-term viability. Each soil stabilization method has its unique set of barriers, which a mix of technical skill, site-specific analysis, and cautious application must address. In addition, thorough site studies, soil testing, and monitoring before and after stabilization are critical for assessing the success of the selected technique and making required modifications. To overcome these problems and achieve effective soil stabilization outcomes, geotech- nical engineers, construction teams, and specialist contractors must work closely to- gether. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  14. 14 4 Emerging Approaches Stabilization In addition to the previously listed standard soil stabilization procedures, other devel- oping approaches are gaining traction in the field of soil stabilization. These techniques use cutting-edge technology and materials to improve soil qualities and provide long- term, cost-effective stabilizing solutions. Here are a few examples of new soil stabiliz- ing techniques [4-7]. 4.1 Geopolymer Stabilization Usage of geopolymers, which are inorganic binders generated by the interaction of alu- minosilicate minerals with alkaline activators, is used in geopolymer stabilization. Ge- opolymers, mainly clayey soils, can be utilized to stabilize a wide range of soil types. Geopolymer binding qualities improve soil strength, minimize compressibility, and in- crease durability. In addition, the long-term stability and resilience to environmental degradation of geopolymer stabilization are well established [5-6]. Figure 7 shows mechanism of soil stabilization using geoploymer. Figure 7: mechanism of soil stabilization using geoploymer (Devarajan et al., 2022) 4.2 Nanotechnology-Based Stabilization Nanotechnology provides potential solutions for soil stabilization by using nanoparti- cles to influence soil characteristics at the molecular level. Nanoparticles, such as nano- silica, nano-lime, or nano-clay, can be added to soil to increase its strength, decrease permeability, and improve its behaviour. Nanoparticles' huge surface area and strong reactivity effectively alter soil characteristics. Nanotechnology-based soil stabilization is still in the experimental stage, but it shows promise in terms of enhancing soil per- formance [24,29-30]. Figure 8 illustrates the Nanotechnological methods for enzyme stabilization. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  15. 15 Figure 8: Nanotechnological methods for enzyme stabilization. 4.3 Microbial-Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) MICP is a bio-mediated technique that uses microorganisms to generate calcium car- bonate precipitation in soil. Sporosarcina pasteurii, for example, may metabolize urea and create carbonate ions, which combine with calcium ions in the soil to make calcite. This process results in soil particle cementation and enhanced soil strength. MICP has demonstrated the capacity to stabilize loose sands and silts, as well as increase soil permeability and minimize erosion potential [31-33]. Figure 9 illustrates Mechanisms of (MICP) and enzyme-induced calcite Precipitation (EICP) in the CaCO3 precipita- tion. Figure 9:Mechanisms of (MICP) and enzyme-induced calcite Precipitation (EICP) in the CaCO3 precipitation (Almajed et al., 2021) 4.4 Biopolymer Stabilization Using natural biopolymers produced from plant or microbial sources to enhance soil qualities is known as biopolymer stabilization. Soil can be fortified with biopolymers Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  16. 16 such as starch, cellulose, or chitosan to increase its strength, prevent erosion, and im- prove water retention. In addition, they serve as binding agents and promote soil parti- cle cohesion. Biopolymer stabilization is ecologically benign and has the ability to en- hance soil over time [34-36]. 4.5 Fiber Reinforcement Fiber reinforcing is the process of incorporating fibers into soil to increase its tensile strength and resistance to deformation. Natural fibers such as jute, coir, or bamboo can be utilized, as can synthetic fibers such as polypropylene or polyester. The fibers form a network within the soil, enhancing shear strength and preventing fractures and fis- sures. Fiber reinforcement is very effective in enhancing the stability of weak and ex- panding soils [9]. 4.6 Self-Healing Materials In soil stabilization, self-healing materials are new materials that have the potential to repair or regenerate themselves when injured or exposed to external influences. Figure 10shows Self-healing action of self-healing materialsThese materials can be put into the soil to improve its long-term durability, strength, and performance. These materials' self-healing capabilities can help minimize fractures, voids, and other types of damage within the soil, enhancing its stability. Using self-healing materials in soil stabilization can potentially increase the durability and resilience of stabilized soil structures. These materials can minimize maintenance demands, increase the service life of buildings, and improve the general stability and performance of the soil by self-repairing damage. However, while adopting self-healing materials in soil stabilization applications, it is critical to consider material compatibility, cost-efficiency, and long-term performance. Figure 10: Self-healing mechanism of self-healing materials Further research and development in this sector is required to maximize the design and deployment of self-healing materials for soil stabilization objectives [37-41]. Here are a few examples of self-healing materials used in soil stabilization: 1.Self-healing Geopolymers: Geopolymers are synthetic materials that may be engineered to be self-healing. Microcapsules containing healing agents such as polymers or resins can be implanted in the geopolymer matrix. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  17. 17 When fractures appear in self-healing geopolymer-stabilized soil, these capsules burst and release the healing agents, which subsequently react and fill the fissures, restoring the material's integrity [42]. 2.Biologically Induced Self-healing: Some bacteria or fungus can be added into soil stabilizing materials to stimulate self-healing. These bacteria can precipitate minerals or form biopolymers that can fill fractures and gaps in the soil. For example, Bacillus subtilis and Sporosarcina pasteurii can pro- duce calcite precipitation, effectively sealing fissures and increasing soil strength [43]. 3.Shape Memory Polymers: Shape memory polymers can revert to their original shape after deforming. These polymers can be used in soil stabili- zation by inserting them into the soil matrix or by incorporating them as separate components within the soil mass. When the soil deforms or cracks, shape memory polymers can restore their previous shape, sealing the fis- sures and restoring soil stability [37,38,41]. 4.Microencapsulated Healing Agents: Encapsulating healing substances, such as resins or adhesives, into microcapsules is the process of microen- capsulation. These microcapsules can be integrated into geotextiles or geo- composites or disseminated inside the soil. When the soil sustains damage or breaks, the capsules burst, releasing healing ingredients that flow into the injured areas and begin the healing process [39,40,,44]. It is crucial to highlight that these new technologies are currently being explored and developed, and their actual implementations may differ depending on soil conditions, project objectives, and cost-effectiveness. Extensive testing, field trials, and technical skills are required to evaluate their effectiveness and applicability for specific stabilis- ing projects. 5 Comparative Analysis of Approaches of Soil Stabilization To provide a comparative analysis of different approaches to soil stabilization, several key factors should be considered and evaluated for each approach based on those fac- tors [8-11,15]. 1.Effectiveness: is the capacity of the stabilization strategy to enhance soil attributes and give the intended engineering performance. Mechanical sta- bilization techniques such as compaction and reinforcing are commonly used to increase soil strength and stability. Chemical stabilization treat- ments, such as cement or lime stabilization, can also enhance soil charac- teristics dramatically. Geosynthetic and biotechnical stabilization methods have proven efficient in erosion control and slope stability. Electrochemical stabilization works well for some fine-grained soils. However, each tech- nique's efficacy depends on unique soil conditions and project needs. 2.Cost: The cost part accounts for the initial expenditure necessary to adopt the stabilization strategy and the long-term maintenance expenses. Mechan- ical stabilizing procedures, such as compaction and reinforcement, are of- ten inexpensive because they use basic, readily accessible materials and equipment. The cost of chemical stabilization procedures varies depending Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  18. 18 on the kind and quantity of stabilizers utilized. Geosynthetic stabilization systems can have moderate to high initial expenditures, but they may save money in the long run owing to lower maintenance requirements. Biotech- nological stabilization methods frequently have cheaper initial costs but may have continuous maintenance to guarantee vegetation growth and sta- bility. Electrochemical stabilisation can be rather costly because of the spe- cific equipment and knowledge required. 3.Environmental Impact: This component considers the stabilisation strat- egy's environmental repercussions and long-term viability. Mechanical sta- bilizing solutions have a common environmental effect when suitable building procedures are used. While chemical stabilization procedures are efficient, chemical additions may cause environmental issues. Natural or biodegradable materials are used in geosynthetic and biotechnical stabili- zation procedures, which are considered ecologically beneficial. Electro- chemical stabilisation may have environmental consequences because of the use of electricity and the possibility for changing soil chemistry. 4.Versatility: The flexibility and applicability of the stabilization strategy to diverse soil types, project sizes, and site circumstances is referred to as ver- satility. Mechanical stabilization technologies are adaptable and may be used on various soil types and projects. Chemical stabilization procedures can be adapted to individual soil conditions, however some soil types may have restrictions. Geosynthetic stabilization methods are adaptable and may be utilized for a variety of purposes such as slope stabilization, erosion con- trol, and reinforcement. Biotechnical stabilization procedures are highly suited for ecological restoration and erosion control in ecologically sensi- tive locations. Electrochemical stabilization is restricted to certain soil types and may not be appropriate for all applications. 5.Longevity: Longevity refers to the stability approach's durability and long- term performance. Mechanical stabilizing technologies, when used cor- rectly, can give long-term stability. Chemical stabilization procedures, no- tably cement stabilization, can provide good long-term performance. Geo- synthetic stabilising systems can have extended lifespans depending on the quality of the materials employed. Biotechnical stabilization methods rely on the growth and maintenance of vegetation, which, if correctly managed, can offer long-term stability. The long-term performance of electrochemi- cal stabilization is currently being researched and may vary depending on soil conditions. It is crucial to note that the comparative study of soil stabilization procedures may differ based on unique project needs, soil conditions, and other site-specific considerations. To establish the best technique for a given project, it is best to do a thorough site in- spection, soil testing, and engineering study. 6 Successful Soil Stabilization Projects Using Various Techniques Here are some successful soil stabilization projects that used various techniques: Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

  19. 19 8.California State Route 1 Reconstruction (Chemical Stabilization): Chemi- cal stabilization techniques were used to increase the stability of the road embankments on California State Route 1, a picturesque highway along the California coastline. To treat the expanding clay soils and boost their strength and longevity, lime stabilization was used. Lime was added into the soil, resulting in a chemical reaction that enhanced soil characteristics and decreased swelling potential. This method of stabilizing reduced the impacts of soil movement and avoided slope failure along the roadway [45]. 9.Panama Canal Expansion Project (Mechanical Stabilization): The Panama Canal expansion project includes building new locks to handle bigger boats. Mechanical stabilization techniques, including as soil compaction and ground enhancement procedures, were used in the project to increase the stability and load-bearing capability of the canal's banks and slopes. To boost soil density and strength, several compaction technologies such as dynamic compaction and vibro-compaction were used. These procedures were critical in assuring the enlarged Panama Canal's stability and lifespan [46]. 10.M1 Motorway Expansion in the United Kingdom: Geosynthetic stabiliza- tion methods were used to increase slope stability and erosion control on the M1 motorway expansion project in the United Kingdom. Geosynthetic materials such as geogrids and geotextiles were placed into the soil to sta- bilise the slopes and prevent erosion. Tensile strength was given by these materials, which also decreased soil movement and boosted slope stability. The geosynthetic stabilization strategy was critical in assuring the increased highway's safety and long-term performance [47]. 11.Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant, Japan (Electrochemical Stabili- zation): To strengthen the liquefaction resistance of the underlying sandy soils, the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant in Japan used electro- chemical stabilization techniques. During earthquake occurrences, elec- trodes were implanted in the ground and an electrical current was transmit- ted through the soil to boost shear strength and limit liquefaction potential. As a result, this electrochemical stabilization method improved the power plant's foundation stability and reduced the risk of soil liquefaction during earthquakes [48]. 12.Big Sur Coast route 1 Restoration (Biotechnical Stabilization): After a mas- sive landslide on California's Big Sur Coast, the Highway 1 restoration pro- ject used biotechnical stabilization techniques to stabilize the slopes and restore the route. Bioengineering techniques such as live fascines and brush layers were used to stabilize the slopes, reduce erosion, and stimulate plant development. These biotechnical stabilization solutions aided in the stabil- ity of the slopes, the mitigation of erosion, and the restoration of natural habitat along the shore [49]. These examples highlight how various soil stabilizing techniques have been success- fully applied in diverse projects. Each solution was customized to the individual soil conditions and project needs, resulting in increased structural stability, longevity, and safety. It emphasizes the significance of selecting the best stabilizing technology based on careful site assessment, soil analysis, and engineering factors. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4471423

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