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Outline of General Linguistics and Chinese Linguistics

Outline of General Linguistics and Chinese Linguistics For CSET Preparation Workshop Dr. Tim Xie California State University, Long Beach http://learningchineseonline.net/teacher Disclaimer

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Outline of General Linguistics and Chinese Linguistics

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  1. Outline of General Linguistics and Chinese Linguistics For CSET Preparation Workshop Dr. Tim Xie California State University, Long Beach http://learningchineseonline.net/teacher

  2. Disclaimer This outline was developed by CSULB faculty to provide some useful information to the students who prepare for the CSET. It is by no means a guideline endorsed by the National Evaluation Services or the Department of Education, California.

  3. Language

  4. What is linguistics?

  5. The Nature of language • Genetic classification譜系分類 – language families and branches語系和語支 • Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family漢藏語系 • Study of languages – synchronic共時 vs. diachronic歷時 • Synchronic – study of a language at a certain period of time • Diachronic – study of a language from the historical perspective, study of historical changes

  6. Diachronic study Synchronic Study

  7. Phonetics and phonology • Organ of speech, vocal organs

  8. Place and manner of articulationChinese Consonants

  9. Chinese Vowels

  10. Suprasegmental phonemes (Chinese tones) • 聲調名稱:陰平/陽平/上聲/去聲 • 文字描寫:高平/高昇/降升/全降 • 聲調符號（五度制聲調符號,五度制調號式）為趙元任1930年為標注漢語聲調制定 • 漢語拼音四聲標調稱為漢語拼音式 • ā á ǎ à • 另有五度制數字式 他 ta55, 南 nan35, 卡 ka214, 怕 pa51

  11. Some important concepts • Minimal pair – bat:pat, 饱:跑(bǎo:pǎo) • differ in only one phonological element • Phoneme – kit, skit /k/; pit, spit /p/; nǐ, zǐ, zhǐ, /i/ • a symbol representing a group of slightly different sounds which are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language

  12. Letters, symbols and phonemes • English: b /b/ beap p /ph/peep • Mandarin: • Pinyin b /p/ 饱 bǎo p /ph/ 跑pǎo • Zhuyin ㄉ /p/ ㄆ /ph/

  13. Pinyin and Zhuyin • Pinyin is based on the phonology of Western linguistics. The smallest unit is phoneme（音位）. • Zhuyin is based on the traditional Chinese phonology. The smallest unit is initial and final（聲母和韻母）.

  14. Morphology: Morphemes • The MORPHEME 語素is the smallest unit that relates sound and meaning (or the smallest meaningful unit). For example, Meaning "dog" ⇔ Sound [dɑg] (English) • Bound 粘著(cannot be used by itself) and Free 自由Morphemes (can be used by itself ) Example: door – s door – a free morpheme – s a bound morpheme

  15. Affixes • prefixes 前綴(at beginning) — “un-” in “unable” 老虎 • suffixes 後綴(at end) — “-ed” in “walked” 桌子 • circumfixes 前后綴(at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist of otherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.) • infixes 中綴(in the middle) -- “-bloody-” in “in-bloody-credible” (These are not used very much in English but occur frequently in other languages.) 糊里糊涂

  16. Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes • Derivational morphemes are used to form new words • Un-happi-ness • Inflectional morphemes are used to form grammatical forms • work-s, work-ing, work-ed

  17. Word formation – derivation 派生and compounding 合成 • Derivation • 初一、阿姨、老虎 (prefix) • 學員、刀子、鳥兒 (suffix) • Compounding • blackboard 黑板 • 火車、地震、

  18. Chinese character, morpheme, word • 天- one word, one character, one morpheme • 工人- one word, two characters, two morphemes • 玻璃- one word, two characters, one morpheme • 巧克力- one word, three characters, one morpheme

  19. Chinese idioms – chengyu, yanyu and xiehouyu (成語、諺語、歇後語) • Four character idiom • 一鳴驚人 • Proverb • 只要功夫深，鐵杵磨成針。 • Enigmatic folk similes • 老鼠過街，人人喊打。

  20. Script 文字 • Structure of character • single vs. compound 獨體字-日、合體字-明 • Stroke 筆劃 • Radical 字根偏旁部首 • Character 字

  21. Six principles of writing六書 • Pictographs象形 – 火、日 • Indicatives指事 - 上、下 • Ideographics會意 - 林、森 • Phonetic-semantic compounds形聲–江、河 • Mutual Explanatories 轉注 -形似、音近、義同的一組字彼此互相解釋。考、老兩字同在 「老」部，讀音相近，意義相通。「考」字的解釋是「老」；「老」字的解釋是「考」 • Phonetic loans假借 - 「自」 原是 「鼻」 的象形字     (象鼻之形)，假借來記錄「自己」 的 「自」。「莫」 原是 「暮」 字的會意字 (日在草莽中，以示太陽下山)，借來表示否定副詞「莫」。

  22. Change of styles 汉字的形体演变 汉字的历史上出现过多种书体，每种书体都有自己的形体特点。（一）　甲骨文（二）　金　文 （三）　大　篆（四）　小　篆（五）　隶　书（六）　魏　碑（七）　楷　书（八）　草　书（九） 行　书

  23. Simplified vs. traditional characters – history and methods of simplification • 五四以後知識分子提出簡化漢字甚至廢除漢字 • 1935 民國34年教育部公布第一批簡化字體（共324個） • 1956大陸文改會公布515 個簡化字和54個偏旁 • 1977二簡遭強烈反對取消 • 隨著手寫和語音輸入等電腦技術的成熟，漢字未來的繁簡之爭，都會逐漸淡化。在中國大陸自然使用規範的簡化字，在海外可以識繁寫簡，也可繁簡由之。

  24. Methods of simplification • 一、省略ellipsis (Partial deletion) • 錄—录，號—号，雲—云，麗—丽 • 二、改形 shape change • Phonetic component changes 改形聲字－潔—洁，驚—惊 • Ideographic component changes 改會意字－體—体，塵—尘 • Similar general outlook 輪廓化－齊—齐，龜—龟，報—报 • Symbolization 符號化－區—区，趙—赵， • 三、代替substitution • 同音替代 homophones • a. Entire character 整体字: 谷－穀，后－後，几－幾， • b. Homophonic components 偏旁同音：优--優，机--機，灯--燈， • 四、 Other methods 其他 • （逻辑合成 logical compounding)国，灭，阴，阳 • （形似）摆，买，卖，头 • 栾滦栾銮峦

  25. Syntax • Traditional sentence analysis – subject, predicate, object, attributive, (adverbial), complement, etc. 主謂賓定狀補

  26. Structuralism and phrase structure rules S NP VP PP NP Det N V P Det N The students are studying in the library. S->NP+VP NP->(Det)+N VP->PP+VP’ VP’->V+NP PP->P+NP

  27. Transformational rules (N. Chomsky) • S • NP VP • PP • NP • Det N V P Det N • The students are studying in the library. • V • Aux V • Be Pres V => Apply a transformational rule • Be V Pres => Apply a morphophonemic rule => • are study -ing

  28. Transformational rule (example 2) 英语主动句转换为被动句规则 The workers built the house. NP1 – Past – V – NP2 (deep structure) => NP2 – Past - be - en –V – by – NP1 The house was built by the workers. (surface structure)

  29. Grammatical characteristics of Chinese 漢語的語法特點 • 漢語是主題突顯的語言 (topic-prominent) • 主語或賓語等成分可以省略 (ellipsis) • 沒有tense “時”，有aspect “態” (aspect) • 有大量的量詞 (MW) • 修飾語在被修飾語的左邊 (left branching) • 不僅動詞作謂語，形容詞名詞都可以作謂語

  30. 漢語是主題突顯的語言 (topic-prominent) • 這件事情我根本不知道。 • 象鼻子很長。 • 中國，我只去過北京和上海。 • 這回大火，幸虧消防隊來得早。 • 我家后院的那棵树，叶子很少，树干很细，非常难看，我真不喜欢，可是又不舍得砍掉，只好留着，以后再说吧。

  31. 沒有tense “時”，有aspect “態” (aspect) • 了、著、過 • 他畢業了。他明年就要畢業了。 • 他在屋子裏坐著 • 我吃過日本飯。 • “了”不表示時間 • 喝了它！Drink it! • 明天我就走了。I will leave tomorrow. • 我吃了中飯再走。 I will leave after lunch.

  32. 修飾語在被修飾語的左邊 (left branching) • 漂亮的姑娘 • 我買的書 • 昨天到這兒來的那個人 • 在圖書館看書 • 給他打電話

  33. 形容詞名詞都可以作謂語 • 這幢 房子 很 漂亮 • 他二十歲。 • 這本書二十塊。 • 今天星期一。

  34. Semantics Semiotic Triangle 語義三角 Source: http://inuse.blogspot.com/2006/07/semiotic-triangle.html

  35. -nyms • Homonym同音 bear/bare • Synonym同義 sofa/couch • Antonym反義 in/out, big/small • Hyponym下義 A hyponym is a word that represents different categories covered by a superordinate:. Superordinate/hypernym 上義: Animal. Hyponyms 下義: Cat, horse, etc.

  36. Semantic feature+ • A semantic feature is a notational method which can be used to express the existence or non-existence of semantic properties by using plus and minus signs. • Man is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [+ADULT]Woman is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [+ADULT]Boy is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [-ADULT]Girl is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [-ADULT]

  37. Pragmatics Linguistic forms vs. functions – declarative, interrogative, imperative sentences vs. making statements, asking, requesting and commanding Form Function Declarative sentence Requesting 陳述句 請求 “今天好冷！” 請把窗關上。

  38. Speech act 言語行為 • Using language to do things is a speech act. • Example: By saying “I promise to improve.” you are making a promise which is a speech act. The verb ‘promise’ is a performative verb. The sentence is a perfomative sentence. • What Is A Speech Act (http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsASpeechAct.htm )

  39. Locutionary vs. illocutionary meaning • Locutionary meaning is the form of which they are the substance. • Illocutionary meaning or force depends on the context. Underlying purpose – a reminder, a warning, a promise, a threat, or whatever. 今天很冷. – The underlying purpose is ‘Please bring me an overcoat.’

  40. Conversational implicature Conventional implicature is an implicature that ispart of a lexical item’s or expression’s agreed meaning, rather than derived from principles of language use, and not part of the conditions for the truth of the item or expression. Example (English) A speaker using the word but between coordinate clauses thinks that some contrast or concession relation is relevant between the clauses.

  41. Performative vs constative utterance • constative utterance vs. performative utterance表述言語與行事言語 • Constative utterances describes facts or provides information. • Performative utterances are speech that constitutes an act. • ‘This is a tree.’ – is a constative utterance. ‘I am baptizing you…’ is a performative utterance

  42. Cooperative Principles • Maxims of conversation – maxims of quantity, relevance, manner and quality • Example of a recommendation letter

  43. Social aspects of language • Social varieties of a language – socio-economical class, gender, age, profession • Situational varieties of a language – formal and informal • Chinese dialects – geographical varieties • Euphemisms and taboos • Communicative competence

  44. Language change • Historical change • Phonemic split and merge (Example of Chinese tonal system 平上去入in classical Chinese, 陰平、陽平、上聲、去聲in modern Mandarin) • Borrowing (loan words) and etymology

  45. Because of the historical change of the tones, the originally rhymed syllables became different. 江雪 柳宗元 千山鳥飛絕， 萬徑人蹤滅。 孤舟簑笠翁， 獨釣寒江雪。 Modern Mandarin Classical Qiān shān niǎo fēi jué [zi] Wàn jìng rén zōng miè [mi] Gū zhōu suò lì wēng [ong] Dú diào hán jiāng xuě [si]

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