Hardware Computer Hardware Slide Show Presentation

1. 1 HardwareComputer Hardware Slide Show Presentation Terry Begley Creighton University College of Business Administration Created Spring 1996 Revised Spring 2004

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3. 3 History of Computers - 1 Abacus A HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER: PREHISTORY The abacus, a simple counting aid, may have been invented in Babylonia (now Iraq) in the fourth century B.C. The Antikythera mechanism, used for registering and predicting the motion of the stars and planets, is dated to the first century B.C. It was discovered off the coast of Greece in 1901. Arabic numerals are introduced to Europe in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D. Roman numerals remain in use in some parts of Europe until the seventeenth century. The Arabic system introduced the concepts of the zero and fixed places for tens, hundreds, thousand, etc., and greatly simplified mathematical calculations. John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, Scotland, invents logs in 1614. Logs allow multiplication and division to be reduced to addition and subtraction. Wilhelm Schickard builds the first mechanical calculator in 1623. It can work with six digits, and carries digits across columns. It works, but never makes it beyond the prototype stage. Schickard is a professor at the University of Tubingen, Germany. Blaise Pascal builds a mechanical calculator in 1642. It has the capacity for eight digits, but has trouble carrying and its gears tend to jam. Joseph-Marie Jacquard invents an automatic loom controlled by punch cards. Charles Babbage conceives of a "Difference Engine" in 1820 or 1821. It is a massive steam-powered mechanical calculator designed to print astronomical tables. He attempts to build it over the course of the next 20 years, only to have the project cancelled by the British government in 1842. Babbage's next idea is the Analytical Engine - a mechanical computer that can solve any mathematical problem. It uses punch-cards similar to those used by the Jacquard loom and can perform simple conditional operations. Augusta Ada Byron, the countess of Lovelace, met Babbage in 1833. She describes the Analytical Engine as weaving "algebraic patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves." Her published analysis of the Analytical Engine is our best record of its programming potential. In it she outlines the fundamentals of computer programming, including data analysis, looping and memory addressing. A HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER: PREHISTORY The abacus, a simple counting aid, may have been invented in Babylonia (now Iraq) in the fourth century B.C. The Antikythera mechanism, used for registering and predicting the motion of the stars and planets, is dated to the first century B.C. It was discovered off the coast of Greece in 1901. Arabic numerals are introduced to Europe in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D. Roman numerals remain in use in some parts of Europe until the seventeenth century. The Arabic system introduced the concepts of the zero and fixed places for tens, hundreds, thousand, etc., and greatly simplified mathematical calculations. John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, Scotland, invents logs in 1614. Logs allow multiplication and division to be reduced to addition and subtraction. Wilhelm Schickard builds the first mechanical calculator in 1623. It can work with six digits, and carries digits across columns. It works, but never makes it beyond the prototype stage. Schickard is a professor at the University of Tubingen, Germany. Blaise Pascal builds a mechanical calculator in 1642. It has the capacity for eight digits, but has trouble carrying and its gears tend to jam. Joseph-Marie Jacquard invents an automatic loom controlled by punch cards. Charles Babbage conceives of a "Difference Engine" in 1820 or 1821. It is a massive steam-powered mechanical calculator designed to print astronomical tables. He attempts to build it over the course of the next 20 years, only to have the project cancelled by the British government in 1842. Babbage's next idea is the Analytical Engine - a mechanical computer that can solve any mathematical problem. It uses punch-cards similar to those used by the Jacquard loom and can perform simple conditional operations. Augusta Ada Byron, the countess of Lovelace, met Babbage in 1833. She describes the Analytical Engine as weaving "algebraic patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves." Her published analysis of the Analytical Engine is our best record of its programming potential. In it she outlines the fundamentals of computer programming, including data analysis, looping and memory addressing.

4. 4 History of Computers - 2 Joseph Jacquard and weaving looms JACQUARD - WEAVING LOOMS - 18th century, used cardboard patterns to “store” patterns for weaving cloth, cut down on weaver skill needed and errors CHARLES BABBAGE - 1833: Difference Engine - mechanical calculator - 1840: Analytical Engine - never built, would have been the first stored program computer (with input, storage and output of data). - ideas way ahead of the technology of the day - Babbage died, penniless and angry, in 1871 - machine built a few years ago by college kids as proof it worked 1870 CENSUS - took 7.5 years to do; estimated 11.5 years for 1880 census - Herman Hollerith - used punch cards (size of then $1 bill) to store data - Hollerith’s firm later became IBM (after many mergers, etc..) 1880 CENSUS - took only 3.5 years despite millions more people - proved the reliability of punched cards as data storage medium JACQUARD - WEAVING LOOMS - 18th century, used cardboard patterns to “store” patterns for weaving cloth, cut down on weaver skill needed and errors CHARLES BABBAGE - 1833: Difference Engine - mechanical calculator - 1840: Analytical Engine - never built, would have been the first stored program computer (with input, storage and output of data). - ideas way ahead of the technology of the day - Babbage died, penniless and angry, in 1871 - machine built a few years ago by college kids as proof it worked 1870 CENSUS - took 7.5 years to do; estimated 11.5 years for 1880 census - Herman Hollerith - used punch cards (size of then $1 bill) to store data - Hollerith’s firm later became IBM (after many mergers, etc..) 1880 CENSUS - took only 3.5 years despite millions more people - proved the reliability of punched cards as data storage medium

5. 5 Charles Babbage Father of Computing 1833: Difference Engine 1840: Analytical Engine

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7. 7 Ada Lovelace Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace, was one of the most picturesque characters in computer history. Augusta Ada Byron was born December 10, 1815 the daughter of the illustrious poet, Lord Byron. Five weeks after Ada was born Lady Byron asked for a separation from Lord Byron, and was awarded sole custody of Ada who she brought up to be a mathematician and scientist. Lady Byron was terrified that Ada might end up being a poet like her father. Despite Lady Byron's programming Ada did not sublimate her poetical inclinations. She hoped to be "an analyst and a metaphysician". In her 30's she wrote her mother, if you can't give me poetry, can't you give me "poetical science?" Her understanding of mathematics was laced with imagination, and described in metaphors. At the age of 17 Ada was introduced to Mary Somerville, a remarkable woman who translated LaPlace's works into English, and whose texts were used at Cambridge. Though Mrs. Somerville encouraged Ada in her mathematical studies, she also attempted to put mathematics and technology into an appropriate human context. It was at a dinner party at Mrs. Somerville's that Ada heard in November, 1834, Babbage's ideas for a new calculating engine, the Analytical Engine. He conjectured: what if a calculating engine could not only foresee but could act on that foresight. Ada was touched by the "universality of his ideas". Hardly anyone else was. Babbage worked on plans for this new engine and reported on the developments at a seminar in Turin, Italy in the autumn of 1841. An Italian, Menabrea, wrote a summary of what Babbage described and published an article in French about the development. Ada, in 1843, married to the Earl of Lovelace and the mother of three children under the age of eight, translated Menabrea's article. When she showed Babbage her translation he suggested that she add her own notes, which turned out to be three times the length of the original article. Letters between Babbage and Ada flew back and forth filled with fact and fantasy. In her article, published in 1843, Lady Lovelace's prescient comments included her predictions that such a machine might be used to compose complex music, to produce graphics, and would be used for both practical and scientific use. She was correct. When inspired Ada could be very focused and a mathematical taskmaster. Ada suggested to Babbage writing a plan for how the engine might calculate Bernoulli numbers. This plan, is now regarded as the first "computer program." A software language developed by the U.S. Department of Defense was named "Ada" in her honor in 1979. After she wrote the description of Babbage's Analytical Engine her life was plagued with illnesses, and her social life, in addition to Charles Babbage, included Sir David Brewster (the originator of the kaleidoscope), Charles Wheatstone, Charles Dickens and Michael Faraday. Her interests ranged from music to horses to calculating machines. She has been used as a character in Gibson and Sterling's the Difference Engine, shown writing letters to Babbage in the series " The Machine that Changed the World" and I have gathered her letters and writings in "Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of Lord Byron's Daughter and Her Description of the First Computer Though her life was short (like her father, she died at 36), Ada anticipated by more than a century most of what we think is brand-new computing. Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace, was one of the most picturesque characters in computer history. Augusta Ada Byron was born December 10, 1815 the daughter of the illustrious poet, Lord Byron. Five weeks after Ada was born Lady Byron asked for a separation from Lord Byron, and was awarded sole custody of Ada who she brought up to be a mathematician and scientist. Lady Byron was terrified that Ada might end up being a poet like her father. Despite Lady Byron's programming Ada did not sublimate her poetical inclinations. She hoped to be "an analyst and a metaphysician". In her 30's she wrote her mother, if you can't give me poetry, can't you give me "poetical science?" Her understanding of mathematics was laced with imagination, and described in metaphors. At the age of 17 Ada was introduced to Mary Somerville, a remarkable woman who translated LaPlace's works into English, and whose texts were used at Cambridge. Though Mrs. Somerville encouraged Ada in her mathematical studies, she also attempted to put mathematics and technology into an appropriate human context. It was at a dinner party at Mrs. Somerville's that Ada heard in November, 1834, Babbage's ideas for a new calculating engine, the Analytical Engine. He conjectured: what if a calculating engine could not only foresee but could act on that foresight. Ada was touched by the "universality of his ideas". Hardly anyone else was. Babbage worked on plans for this new engine and reported on the developments at a seminar in Turin, Italy in the autumn of 1841. An Italian, Menabrea, wrote a summary of what Babbage described and published an article in French about the development. Ada, in 1843, married to the Earl of Lovelace and the mother of three children under the age of eight, translated Menabrea's article. When she showed Babbage her translation he suggested that she add her own notes, which turned out to be three times the length of the original article. Letters between Babbage and Ada flew back and forth filled with fact and fantasy. In her article, published in 1843, Lady Lovelace's prescient comments included her predictions that such a machine might be used to compose complex music, to produce graphics, and would be used for both practical and scientific use. She was correct. When inspired Ada could be very focused and a mathematical taskmaster. Ada suggested to Babbage writing a plan for how the engine might calculate Bernoulli numbers. This plan, is now regarded as the first "computer program." A software language developed by the U.S. Department of Defense was named "Ada" in her honor in 1979. After she wrote the description of Babbage's Analytical Engine her life was plagued with illnesses, and her social life, in addition to Charles Babbage, included Sir David Brewster (the originator of the kaleidoscope), Charles Wheatstone, Charles Dickens and Michael Faraday. Her interests ranged from music to horses to calculating machines. She has been used as a character in Gibson and Sterling's the Difference Engine, shown writing letters to Babbage in the series " The Machine that Changed the World" and I have gathered her letters and writings in "Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of Lord Byron's Daughter and Her Description of the First Computer Though her life was short (like her father, she died at 36), Ada anticipated by more than a century most of what we think is brand-new computing.

8. 8 Babbage’s Analytical Engine

9. 9 History of Computers - 3 the 1880 and 1890 Census’ Herman Hollerith In a slightly different version of the same story Dr Billings was reported to have said (see for example [4]):- There ought to be some mechanical way of doing this job, something on the principle of the Jacquard loom, whereby holes in a card regulate the pattern to be woven. In 1882 Hollerith joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he taught mechanical engineering. At this time he investigated Billings suggestion, examining the way that the Jacquard loom worked with a view to seeing if it could be used in census work. He found that in most respects the function of the Jacquard loom was too far removed from what might be useful to the census work, however he did realise that the punched cards were an efficient way to store information. Another idea struck him one day on a train journey as he watched the ticket collector punch tickets. This was an easy way to punch information onto cards. While he worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Hollerith began his first experiments. These used a paper tape, rather than cards, with pins which would go through a hole in the tape and complete an electrical contact. The idea was nearly right but the tape had drawbacks since it had to stop to allow the pin to go through the hole to make the contact. Hollerith realised that cards would provide a better solution. Hollerith did not enjoy teaching so he soon sought another job. In 1884 he obtain a post in the U.S. Patent Office in Washington, D.C. This was either good luck or a brilliant career move depending on how far sighted Hollerith was in seeing that he would be in the best possible position to make full use of skills learnt in the patent office in patenting his own inventions. In 1884 Hollerith applied for his first patent (he would receive more than 30 patents from the United States during his career and many overseas patents). He developed the early work he had done at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on methods to convert the information on punched cards into electrical impulses. These impulses in turn would activate mechanical counters. He used at first the punch that was used for tickets on the railway to make the holes in the cards. This showed that the system worked but since the punch could only make holes near the edge of the card, the full potential was not being used. Hollerith designed punches specially made for his system, the Hollerith Electric Tabulating System. He also improved the machines which read the cards. Engineering developments improved the accuracy of the pin going through the hole in the card to make an electrical connection with mercury placed beneath. The resulting electrical current activated a mechanical counter and the amount of information which could be handled on each card rapidly increased. Hollerith's system was first tested on tabulating mortality statistics in Baltimore, New Jersey in 1887 and again in New York City. This punched card system was in use by the time of the 1890 US census but it was not the only system to be considered for use with the census. It won convincingly in competition with two other systems considered for the 1890 census showing that it could handle data more quickly. Having won, Hollerith now had to have punches and counting devices manufactured. The punches were made by Pratt and Whitney, later famed for building engines for aircraft. The punch was constructed in a similar way to a typewriter having a simple keyboard. The counting machines were made by the Western Electric Company. Everything was in place by June 1890 and the first data from the census arrived in September of that year. The counting was completed by 12 December 1890 having taken about three months to process instead of the expected time of two years if counting had been done by hand. The total population of the United States in 1890 was found to be 62,622,250. Speed was not the only benefit of using Hollerith's system. It was possible to gather more data, and data such as the number of children born in a family, the number of children still alive in a family, and the number of people who spoke English were part of the 1890 census. Although Hollerith had left the academic world, he clearly was still attracted to certain aspects of it, for he wrote up the details of his tabulating systems and submitted the work for a doctorate at the Columbia School of Mines. Hollerith was awarded his doctorate in 1890. In a slightly different version of the same story Dr Billings was reported to have said (see for example [4]):- There ought to be some mechanical way of doing this job, something on the principle of the Jacquard loom, whereby holes in a card regulate the pattern to be woven. In 1882 Hollerith joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he taught mechanical engineering. At this time he investigated Billings suggestion, examining the way that the Jacquard loom worked with a view to seeing if it could be used in census work. He found that in most respects the function of the Jacquard loom was too far removed from what might be useful to the census work, however he did realise that the punched cards were an efficient way to store information. Another idea struck him one day on a train journey as he watched the ticket collector punch tickets. This was an easy way to punch information onto cards. While he worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Hollerith began his first experiments. These used a paper tape, rather than cards, with pins which would go through a hole in the tape and complete an electrical contact. The idea was nearly right but the tape had drawbacks since it had to stop to allow the pin to go through the hole to make the contact. Hollerith realised that cards would provide a better solution. Hollerith did not enjoy teaching so he soon sought another job. In 1884 he obtain a post in the U.S. Patent Office in Washington, D.C. This was either good luck or a brilliant career move depending on how far sighted Hollerith was in seeing that he would be in the best possible position to make full use of skills learnt in the patent office in patenting his own inventions. In 1884 Hollerith applied for his first patent (he would receive more than 30 patents from the United States during his career and many overseas patents). He developed the early work he had done at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on methods to convert the information on punched cards into electrical impulses. These impulses in turn would activate mechanical counters. He used at first the punch that was used for tickets on the railway to make the holes in the cards. This showed that the system worked but since the punch could only make holes near the edge of the card, the full potential was not being used. Hollerith designed punches specially made for his system, the Hollerith Electric Tabulating System. He also improved the machines which read the cards. Engineering developments improved the accuracy of the pin going through the hole in the card to make an electrical connection with mercury placed beneath. The resulting electrical current activated a mechanical counter and the amount of information which could be handled on each card rapidly increased. Hollerith's system was first tested on tabulating mortality statistics in Baltimore, New Jersey in 1887 and again in New York City. This punched card system was in use by the time of the 1890 US census but it was not the only system to be considered for use with the census. It won convincingly in competition with two other systems considered for the 1890 census showing that it could handle data more quickly. Having won, Hollerith now had to have punches and counting devices manufactured. The punches were made by Pratt and Whitney, later famed for building engines for aircraft. The punch was constructed in a similar way to a typewriter having a simple keyboard. The counting machines were made by the Western Electric Company. Everything was in place by June 1890 and the first data from the census arrived in September of that year. The counting was completed by 12 December 1890 having taken about three months to process instead of the expected time of two years if counting had been done by hand. The total population of the United States in 1890 was found to be 62,622,250. Speed was not the only benefit of using Hollerith's system. It was possible to gather more data, and data such as the number of children born in a family, the number of children still alive in a family, and the number of people who spoke English were part of the 1890 census. Although Hollerith had left the academic world, he clearly was still attracted to certain aspects of it, for he wrote up the details of his tabulating systems and submitted the work for a doctorate at the Columbia School of Mines. Hollerith was awarded his doctorate in 1890.

10. 10 The Hollerith system was clearly a great leap forward. It saved the United States 5 million dollars for the 1890 census by completing the analysis of the data in a fraction of the time it would have taken without it and with a smaller amount of manpower than would have been necessary otherwise. The system was again used for the 1891 census in Canada, Norway and Austria and later for the 1911 UK census. Honours came to Hollerith from all sides for his outstanding invention. He was awarded the prestigious Elliot Cresson Medal by the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1890. He received the Gold Medal of the Paris Exposition and the Bronze Medal of the World's Fair in 1893. He was asked to address learned societies around the world, for example he spoke to the Royal Statistical Society in London. In 1896 Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company to exploit his inventions. By this time he had added a mechanism to feed the cards automatically and other automatic sorting procedures which added sophistication to the original simple mechanical counting process. His system was used again for the US census of 1900, but by this time he was asking such a high price for the use of his technology that questions began to be asked about the wisdom of using the system. Because Hollerith had a virtual monopoly he had set the price well beyond what it would have cost to count the 1900 census data by hand. The Census Bureau became a permanent institution by an Act of Congress in 1903 and it began to prepare for the 1910 census. The cost of using Hollerith's system in 1900 made them decide to develop their own system and, despite the short time and the difficulty of getting round Hollerith's patents, they were able to have more advanced machines ready in time for the 1910 census. There is a rather strange twist to this story for the engineer who was in charge of the development of the rival machines at the Census Bureau, James Powers, was strangely allowed to patent these more advanced machines in his own name. Powers was now in a strong position and in 1911, after the census, he left the Census Bureau and formed the Powers Tabulating Machine Company which was now more than a match for Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company. A merger with another company saw Hollerith's company become the Computer Tabulating Recording Company in 1911 but the new company largely was forced out of the market for counting machines. Hollerith served as a consulting engineer with the Computer Tabulating Recording Company until he retired in 1921. The Computer Tabulating Recording Company had recovered its leading role by 1920, due not to Hollerith but to Thomas J Watson who joined the company in 1918. The company was renamed International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), in 1924. Although Hollerith made a very significant contribution to the development of the modern electronic computer with his punched card technology not all his ideas were similar great successes. In the 1880s, at the same time as he was developing his first punched card system, he invented a new brake system for trains. However his electrically actuated brake system lost out to the Westinghouse steam-actuated brake. Hollerith died of a heart attack in 1929, eight years after retiring. The Hollerith system was clearly a great leap forward. It saved the United States 5 million dollars for the 1890 census by completing the analysis of the data in a fraction of the time it would have taken without it and with a smaller amount of manpower than would have been necessary otherwise. The system was again used for the 1891 census in Canada, Norway and Austria and later for the 1911 UK census. Honours came to Hollerith from all sides for his outstanding invention. He was awarded the prestigious Elliot Cresson Medal by the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1890. He received the Gold Medal of the Paris Exposition and the Bronze Medal of the World's Fair in 1893. He was asked to address learned societies around the world, for example he spoke to the Royal Statistical Society in London. In 1896 Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company to exploit his inventions. By this time he had added a mechanism to feed the cards automatically and other automatic sorting procedures which added sophistication to the original simple mechanical counting process. His system was used again for the US census of 1900, but by this time he was asking such a high price for the use of his technology that questions began to be asked about the wisdom of using the system. Because Hollerith had a virtual monopoly he had set the price well beyond what it would have cost to count the 1900 census data by hand. The Census Bureau became a permanent institution by an Act of Congress in 1903 and it began to prepare for the 1910 census. The cost of using Hollerith's system in 1900 made them decide to develop their own system and, despite the short time and the difficulty of getting round Hollerith's patents, they were able to have more advanced machines ready in time for the 1910 census. There is a rather strange twist to this story for the engineer who was in charge of the development of the rival machines at the Census Bureau, James Powers, was strangely allowed to patent these more advanced machines in his own name. Powers was now in a strong position and in 1911, after the census, he left the Census Bureau and formed the Powers Tabulating Machine Company which was now more than a match for Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company. A merger with another company saw Hollerith's company become the Computer Tabulating Recording Company in 1911 but the new company largely was forced out of the market for counting machines. Hollerith served as a consulting engineer with the Computer Tabulating Recording Company until he retired in 1921. The Computer Tabulating Recording Company had recovered its leading role by 1920, due not to Hollerith but to Thomas J Watson who joined the company in 1918. The company was renamed International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), in 1924. Although Hollerith made a very significant contribution to the development of the modern electronic computer with his punched card technology not all his ideas were similar great successes. In the 1880s, at the same time as he was developing his first punched card system, he invented a new brake system for trains. However his electrically actuated brake system lost out to the Westinghouse steam-actuated brake. Hollerith died of a heart attack in 1929, eight years after retiring.

11. 11 History of Computers - 4 Electromechanical devices

12. 12 History of Computers - 5 Electronic computers John Von Neumann Stored program architecture paper World War II First business computer, 1954 ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS - WWII was a boon to computers, with all the Gi’s to keep track of - used for atomic bomb calculations and artillery ballistic tables - Census Bureau, too - First business computer, GE, 1954, Louisville, KT, to do accounting - IBM survey: 50 computers needed in USA (ha ha) PERSONAL COMPUTERS - originally home made - IBM survey: 250,000 to be sold in 5 years (ha ha) - later discussion of more details on personal computersELECTRONIC COMPUTERS - WWII was a boon to computers, with all the Gi’s to keep track of - used for atomic bomb calculations and artillery ballistic tables - Census Bureau, too - First business computer, GE, 1954, Louisville, KT, to do accounting - IBM survey: 50 computers needed in USA (ha ha) PERSONAL COMPUTERS - originally home made - IBM survey: 250,000 to be sold in 5 years (ha ha) - later discussion of more details on personal computers

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14. 14 A HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER: ELECTRONICS Konrad Zuse, a German engineer, completes the first general purpose progammable calculator in 1941. He pioneers the use of binary math and boolean logic in electronic calculation. Colossus, a British computer used for code-breaking, is operational by December of 1943. ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzor and Computer, is developed by the Ballistics Research Laboratory in Maryland to assist in the preparation of firing tables for artillery. It is built at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering and completed in November 1945. Bell Telephone Laboratories develops the transistor in 1947. UNIVAC, the Universal Automatic Computer (pictured below), is developed in 1951. It can store 12,000 digits in random access mercury-delay lines. EDVAC, for Electronic Discrete Variable Computer, is completed under contract for the Ordinance Department in 1952. In 1952 G.W. Dummer, a radar expert from the British Royal Radar Establishment, proposes that electronic equipment be manufactured as a solid block with no connecting wires. The prototype he builds doesn't work and he receives little support for his research. Texas Instruments and Fairchild semiconductor both announce the integrated circuit in 1959. The IBM 360 is introduced in April of 1964 and quickly becomes the standard institutional mainframe computer. By the mid-80s the 360 and its descendents will have generated more than $100 billion in revenue for IBM. A HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER: ELECTRONICS Konrad Zuse, a German engineer, completes the first general purpose progammable calculator in 1941. He pioneers the use of binary math and boolean logic in electronic calculation. Colossus, a British computer used for code-breaking, is operational by December of 1943. ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzor and Computer, is developed by the Ballistics Research Laboratory in Maryland to assist in the preparation of firing tables for artillery. It is built at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering and completed in November 1945. Bell Telephone Laboratories develops the transistor in 1947. UNIVAC, the Universal Automatic Computer (pictured below), is developed in 1951. It can store 12,000 digits in random access mercury-delay lines. EDVAC, for Electronic Discrete Variable Computer, is completed under contract for the Ordinance Department in 1952. In 1952 G.W. Dummer, a radar expert from the British Royal Radar Establishment, proposes that electronic equipment be manufactured as a solid block with no connecting wires. The prototype he builds doesn't work and he receives little support for his research. Texas Instruments and Fairchild semiconductor both announce the integrated circuit in 1959. The IBM 360 is introduced in April of 1964 and quickly becomes the standard institutional mainframe computer. By the mid-80s the 360 and its descendents will have generated more than $100 billion in revenue for IBM.

15. 15 Microcomputers 1973: Xerox Alto 1975: Altair 1978: Apple II 1981: IBM PC (5150) 1983: Apple Macintosh A HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER: MICRO Bill Gates and Paul Allen form Traf-O-Data in 1971 to sell their computer traffic-analysis systems. 1972: Gary Kildall writes PL/M, the first high-level programming language for the Intel microprocessor. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak are building and selling "blue boxes" in Southern California in 1971. April 1972: Intel introduces the 8008, the first 8-bit microprocessor. Jonathan A. Titus designs the Mark-8, "Your Personal Minicomputer," according to the July, 1974 cover of Radio-Electronics. Popular Electronics features the MITS Altair 8800 on its cover, January 1975. It is hailed as the first "personal" computer. Thousands of orders for the 8800 rescue MITS from bankruptcy. Paul Allen and Bill Gates develop BASIC for the Altair 8800. Microsoft is born. 1977: Apple is selling its Apple II for $1,195, including 16K of RAM but no monitor. Software Arts develops the first spreadsheet program, Visicalc, by the spring of 1979. It is released in October and is an immediate success. Copies shipped per month rise from 500 to 12,000 between 1979 and 1981. By 1980 Apple has captured 50% of the personal computer market. In 1980 Microsoft is approached by IBM to develop BASIC for its personal computer project. The IBM PC is released in August, 1981. The Apple Macintosh debuts in 1984. It features a simple, graphical interface, uses the 8-MHz, 32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU, and has a built-in 9-inch B/W screen. Microsoft Windows 1.0 ships in November, 1985. Motorola announces the 68040, a 32-bit 25MHz microprocessor. Microsoft's sales for 1989 reach $1 billion, the first year to do so. A HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER: MICRO Bill Gates and Paul Allen form Traf-O-Data in 1971 to sell their computer traffic-analysis systems. 1972: Gary Kildall writes PL/M, the first high-level programming language for the Intel microprocessor. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak are building and selling "blue boxes" in Southern California in 1971. April 1972: Intel introduces the 8008, the first 8-bit microprocessor. Jonathan A. Titus designs the Mark-8, "Your Personal Minicomputer," according to the July, 1974 cover of Radio-Electronics. Popular Electronics features the MITS Altair 8800 on its cover, January 1975. It is hailed as the first "personal" computer. Thousands of orders for the 8800 rescue MITS from bankruptcy. Paul Allen and Bill Gates develop BASIC for the Altair 8800. Microsoft is born. 1977: Apple is selling its Apple II for $1,195, including 16K of RAM but no monitor. Software Arts develops the first spreadsheet program, Visicalc, by the spring of 1979. It is released in October and is an immediate success. Copies shipped per month rise from 500 to 12,000 between 1979 and 1981. By 1980 Apple has captured 50% of the personal computer market. In 1980 Microsoft is approached by IBM to develop BASIC for its personal computer project. The IBM PC is released in August, 1981. The Apple Macintosh debuts in 1984. It features a simple, graphical interface, uses the 8-MHz, 32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU, and has a built-in 9-inch B/W screen. Microsoft Windows 1.0 ships in November, 1985. Motorola announces the 68040, a 32-bit 25MHz microprocessor. Microsoft's sales for 1989 reach $1 billion, the first year to do so.

16. 16 Computers  Researchers at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center designed the Alto — the first work station with a built-in mouse for input. The Alto stored several files simultaneously in windows, offered menus and icons, and could link to a local area network. Although Xerox never sold the Alto commercially, it gave a number of them to universities. Engineers later incorporated its features into work stations and personal computers. Xerox Alto

17. 17 Altair 8080 The January edition of Popular Electronics featured the Altair 8800 computer kit, based on Intel´s 8080 microprocessor, on its cover. Within weeks of the computer´s debut, customers inundated the manufacturing company, MITS, with orders. Bill Gates and Paul Allen licensed BASIC as the software language for the Altair. Ed Roberts invented the 8800 — which sold for $297, or $395 with a case — and coined the term "personal computer." The machine came with 256 bytes of memory (expandable to 64K) and an open 100-line bus structure that evolved into the S-100 standard. In 1977, MITS sold out to Pertec, which continued producing Altairs through 1978.

18. 18 Computer Generations First Second Third Fourth Fifth ??? FIRST GENERATION - vacuum tubes used - slow I/O, punched cards - problems with heat and maintenance - used for payroll and record keeping - Univac I SECOND GENERATION - used transistors (developed at Bell Labs) - used tape for I/O - increased speed and reliability (threw off less heat) - used for billing and inventory - IBM 4101, Honeywell 200 THIRD GENERATION - used integrated circuits - used magnetic disks for I/O - airline reservations and market forecasting - IBM 360, NCR 395 FIRST GENERATION - vacuum tubes used - slow I/O, punched cards - problems with heat and maintenance - used for payroll and record keeping - Univac I SECOND GENERATION - used transistors (developed at Bell Labs) - used tape for I/O - increased speed and reliability (threw off less heat) - used for billing and inventory - IBM 4101, Honeywell 200 THIRD GENERATION - used integrated circuits - used magnetic disks for I/O - airline reservations and market forecasting - IBM 360, NCR 395

19. 19 Computer Generations FOURTH GENERATION - used large-scale integrated circuits - increased storage capacity and speed - greater variety of I/O devices - tape, disk, microfilm, voice - used for simulation, CAD/CAM - IBM 3090, Sperry Univac 1100 FIFTH GENERATION - ??? - gallium arsenide instead of silicon? - true artificial intelligence? - bio-engineered computers? FOURTH GENERATION - used large-scale integrated circuits - increased storage capacity and speed - greater variety of I/O devices - tape, disk, microfilm, voice - used for simulation, CAD/CAM - IBM 3090, Sperry Univac 1100 FIFTH GENERATION - ??? - gallium arsenide instead of silicon? - true artificial intelligence? - bio-engineered computers?

20. 20 The First Transistor (1948)

21. 21 ENIAC

22. 22 IBM 360 Computer System

23. 23 IBM 709 Mainframe

24. 24 IBM 704

25. 25 DEC PDP I

26. 26 Digital Equipment Corp

27. 27

28. 28 Computer Classifications Microcomputer Minicomputer Mainframe Supercomputer The four generally accepted classifications of computer size. Note that these are approximate, and not hard and fast - probably can find examples to disprove what I am saying!The four generally accepted classifications of computer size. Note that these are approximate, and not hard and fast - probably can find examples to disprove what I am saying!

29. 29 Microcomputer Users: One Speed: Slow Price: $500 - $3,000 Size: desktop or smaller Examples: IBM PC, Apple ][, Apple Macintosh, Imac “personal computers”

30. 30 Minicomputer Users: 2 - 50 Speed: Faster Price: $10,000 - $250,000 Size: file cabinet Examples: HP 9000 DEC VAX “departmental computers”

31. 31 Mainframe Computer Users: 50 + Speed: Fast Price: $500,000 - millions Size: refrigerator-sized on up Examples: IBM 3090, Unisys 2200 company-wide (“enterprise”)

32. 32 Supercomputer Users: a few Speed: very, very fast Price: $ millions Size: room Examples: Cray, Fujitsu scientific uses

33. 33 Computer An electronic device that has the ability to accept data, internally store and execute a program of instructions, perform mathematical, logical and manipulative operations on data, and report the results.

34. 34 Hardware consists of all machinery and equipment input devices output devices processing and memory devices secondary storage devices communications devices

35. 35 Software the step-by-step instructions that tell the computer what to do applications software performs useful work on general-purpose tasks available from many places systems software enables the application software to interact with the computer generally comes from the hardware vendor

36. 36 Computer Components

37. 37 Input Devices keyboard disk tape cards voice scanner (various types) modem mouse/trackballs/glide points

38. 38 Input Devices

39. 39 Output Devices monitor printer impact printers non-impact printers disk modem voice microfilm

40. 40 Central Processing Unit Primary Storage random access memory, “scratchpad” volatile storage limited in capacity Control Unit controls CPU and it’s interactions Arithmetic/Logic Unit math and logic calculations

41. 41 Microprocessors

42. 42 Microprocessor A single integrated circuit (chip), mounted on a system board (motherboard) of a personal computer. manufacturers: Intel Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) Cyrix Motorola

43. 43 Secondary Storage nonvolatile storage generally removable types tape cards magnetic disk optical disk

44. 44 Size Capacity Measurements Bit Byte Kilobyte Megabyte Gigabyte Terabyte Petabyte

45. 45 Size Capacity - 1 Bit Binary Digit either a Zero or a One; basic unit for storing data; 0=off, 1=on Byte Binary Digit Eight; a unit of information usually consisting of 8 bits; each byte usually represents a character, letter or symbol

46. 46 Size Capacity - 2 Kilobyte approximately 1 thousand characters 1,024 bits (210) Megabyte approximately 1 million characters 1,048,576 bytes (220) Gigabyte approximately 1 billion characters 1,073,741,824 bytes (230)

47. 47 Size Capacity - 3 Terabyte One trillion bytes; 10^12.Or, 2^40 (1,099,511,627,776) Petabyte A quadrillion bytes (10^15 bytes or 2^50 bytes)

48. 48 Size Capacity Measurements

49. 49 Floppy Disks A removable, round, flexible plastic disk that stores data as magnetized spots on the disk. developed by IBM in the 1960’s disk spins only when accessed read/write head makes physical contact with the disk

50. 50 Floppy Disk Size and Capacity 8” developed by IBM for minicomputer line 300 - 800K capacity 5¼” developed by Al Shugart used on Apple ][, IBM PC, IBM AT DSDD: 360K DSHD: 1.2meg

51. 51 Floppy Disk Size and Capacity 3½” developed by Sony first used on Apple Macintosh, 1984 DSDD: 720K DSHD: 1.44meg DSQD: 2.88meg 2½” developed by Zenith in 1988 never caught on with consumers

52. 52 Hard Disks

53. 53 Hard Disks - 1 generally nonremovable disk made out of metal and covered with a magnetic recording surface, holding data in the form of magnetic spots. hermetically sealed disk spins constantly read/write head does not make physical contact with the disk

54. 54 Hard Disks - 2 cost per megabyte 1983: $1100 for a 10meg drive 2002: $165 for a 120 gigabyte drive Rule of thumb: $.80 per gigabyte Interface Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI)

55. 55 Hard Disk Size and Capacity (5¼”), 3½” and 2½” platter size trend is for greater capacity, with smaller size and lower cost standard drive today is 60 gigabyte capacity (and growing….) Watch out for rotation speed 5400, 7600, 10,000 and 15,000 RPM

56. 56 Optical Disk a disk that is written and read by lasers Compact Disk, Read-Only Media CD-ROM 5¼” size write once, read many times (WORM) 650 megabyte capacity speeds: 1x, 2x, 4x, 6x, 16x, 24x, 32x, 40x ++ Compact Disk, Write-Once, Read-Many writeable CD-ROM

57. 57 CD-ROM CD-ROM Writers (“burners”) approximately $150 blank disks are $0.25 in quantity

58. 58 DVD “Burners” just coming on the market Cost is approximately $700 Blanks are about $10 each

59. 59 Magnetic Tape flexible plastic coated on one side with a magnetic material, data is represented by magnetized spots common for mini/mainframe backup cartridge form available for mini/pc sequential storage medium

60. 60 Modems

61. 61 Modem Speed Measurement baud and bits-per-second (bps) the speed at which a modem can transfer information over telephone lines baud: measure of signal changes that take place over one second of data transfer bps: measure of the actual number of bits transferred during that second

62. 62 Modem Speed Measurement 300 1200 2400 9600 14,400 28,800 / 33,600 56,600

63. 63 (Internal) Modem Connections

64. 64 External Modems

65. 65 Cable Modems A "Cable Modem" is a device that allows high speed data access (such as to the Internet) via a cable TV (CATV) network. A cable modem will typically have two connections, one to the cable wall outlet and the other to a computer (PC). Cable modem speeds range from 128Kbps to 10Mbps

66. 66 Cable Modems

67. 67 Cable Modems

68. 68 Clock Speed Measurement how fast a computer’s CPU processes information hertz one clock cycle per second kilohertz one thousand hertz per second megahertz one million hertz per second gigahertz one billion hertz per second

69. 69 Intel microprocessors

70. 70 the Intel Chip Family - 1 8088 80186 80286 80386 80486 P5 - Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II Celeron Pentium III Pentium IV

71. 71 the Intel Chip Family - 2 8088 first used in IBM PC (1981) 4.77mhz 8086 used by clone manufacturers 6, 8, 10mhz used 8087 math coprocessor

72. 72 the Intel Chip Family - 3 80186 used only in a Radio Shack clone model used in traffic lights and cars!

73. 73 the Intel Chip Family - 4 80826 first used in IBM PC/AT (1984) 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20mhz 16 bit external processing address 16meg of memory used 80287 for math coprocessing

74. 74 the Intel Chip Family - 5 80386 first used by Compaq, then IBM 16, 20, 25, 33, 40mhz 32 bit external processing address 16gig of memory used 80387 for math coprocessing SX: 16 bit bus DX: 32 bit bus

75. 75 the Intel Chip Family - 6 80486 introduced in 1989 20, 25, 33, 50, 66, 80, 100, 120, 133mhz 32 bit external processing address 64gig of memory SX: no math coprocessor built-in DX: math coprocessor built-in

76. 76 the Intel Chip Family - 7 Pentium (P5) introduced in 1993 60, 66mhz (6 volt) 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166 (3.3 volt) 32 bit external processing address 64+gig of memory no longer in production as of 4-1-98

77. 77 the Intel Chip Family - 8 Pentium Pro introduced in 1996 dead-end processor 150, 180, 200mhz 32 bit external processing address 64+gig of memory

78. 78 the Intel Chip Family - 9 Pentium II next version of the Pentium (P6) speeds of 200, 233, 266, 300, 400, 450mhz out of production in Fall ‘99

79. 79 the Intel Chip Family - 10 Pentium III next version of the Pentium family speeds of 450, 500, 550, 600, 700, 733, 800, 850, 866, 933, 1GHz No longer in production

80. 80 the Intel Chip Family - 10 Pentium IV Speeds from 1.2GHz, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.8GHz 4GHz is due out any time now

81. 81 Intel Microprocessor PricesComputer Shopper, March 1996

82. 82 Intel Microprocessor Pricespricewatch.com http://www.pricewatch.com/

83. 83 Other Microprocessor PricesComputer Shopper, March 1996

84. 84 Monitors

85. 85 Monitor Specifications Mono Display Adapter (MDA) Mono Graphics Adapter (MGA) Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) Video Graphics Array (VGA) Super VGA (SVGA)

86. 86 Monitor Types CRT Cathode ray tube LCD Liquid crystal display

87. 87 CRT Works by moving an electron beam back and forth across the back of the screen. Each time the beam makes a pass at the back of the screen, it lights up phospor dots on the inside of the glass tube, illuminating the active portions of the screen. By drawing lots of lines from the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an entire screen of images.

88. 88 Things to Look for - CRTs Dot Pitch size of smallest dot on the monitor the smaller, the better Poor .55 .26 Great Interlaced -vs.- Noninterlaced how the display is updated avoid interlaced monitors!!! Viewable area

89. 89 LCD Uses two sheets of polarizing material, with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them – like a shutter

90. 90 LCD Monochrome Blue or gray on a gray background Color Passive matrix cheaper Active matrix More expensive, sharper images May be backlit to be easier to read

91. 91 LCD Uses much less electricity than CRTs Take up less desk space Will become the dominant monitor type in a few years

92. 92 Monitor Sizes 12” 14” 15” 17” 19” 21”

93. 93 Monitor Resolutions SVGA a function of the monitor and the video card 640 x 480 (standard VGA resolution) 800 x 640 1024 x 768 1280 x 1024 1680 x 1280

94. 94 Case Designs and Sizes - 1 desktop smaller size fewer expansion slots can be turned over to stand on it’s side tower larger size more expansion slots possibly larger power supply frees desktop space

95. 95 Case Designs and Sizes - 2 desktop AT baby AT pizza box tower full tower mid-tower mini tower

96. 96 Integrated (one piece unit)

97. 97

98. 98 Case Terms Bays number of open spaces for devices ½-height bays full height bays size 5¼“ for CD-ROM and tape backup units 3½“ for floppy drives, hard drives, some tape units

99. 99 Connection Points (ports) Serial port Parallel port Keyboard port Mouse port Joystick port USB ports universal serial bus

100. 100 Serial Ports AKA: RS-232 port Two-way data transfer Theoretically have 4 Realistically have 2 names: com1: - com2: com3: - com4: uses: modems, mice, data collection

101. 101 Parallel Ports - 1 originally one-way data transfer, but new bi-directional ports allow two-way data transfer theoretically have 4 realistically have 2, commonly have 1 can be emulated in software thru the use of network operating system software (Novell, NT)

102. 102 Parallel Ports - 2 names lpt1: to lpt4: uses: printers, lap-link data transfer

103. 103 Joystick, Keyboard & Mouse Ports most home computers have a joystick port mouse port frees serial ports for other uses keyboard port can be regular pin or mini pin configuration (adapters available)

104. 104 USB Ports A personal computer bus which can support up to 127 peripheral devices in a daisy chain configuration, and has a total bandwidth of 1.5 megabytes per second. It uses inexpensive cable, which can be up to 5 meters long. Supported on Win95 R2 and Win98 and Windows 2000, but not Win95 and NT more peripherals available now (cameras, input devices, scanners) Version 1.1 and 2.0 (now available)

105. 105 Motherboard aka: system board where components are located, where expansion slots are located different bus designs

106. 106 Bus Design - 1 Bus - links the CPU to hardware devices Different bus designs ISA MCA EISA VESA PCI AGP

107. 107 Bus Designs - 2 ISA Industry Standard Architecture developed for original IBM PC originally 8 bits, extended to 16 bits

108. 108 Bus Design - 3 MCA Micro Channel Architecture developed by IBM for the PS/2 family of computers in 1986 requires different expansion cards 16 bit design rarely licensed to other vendors out of production now

109. 109 Bus Design - 4 EISA Extended Industry Standard Architecture developed by a consortium in response to IBM’s MCA (led by Compaq) 32 bit design could use ISA cards in EISA slots popular in servers for a few years out of production now

110. 110 Bus Design - 5 VESA Video Electronics Standards Assoc. connects directly to the microprocessor 32 bit design used to speed up video, then hard drive controllers No longer found on systems

111. 111 Bus Design - 6 PCI Peripheral Components Interconnect local bus using 64 bit design used in high-end 486 and P5 systems replaced VESA

112. 112 Bus Design - 7 PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association used for notebooks, to insert credit-card sized devices into open expansion slots moving onto the desktop available in modems, network cards, extra RAM

113. 113 Bus Design - 8 AGP Advanced Graphics Processing used to speed up the video card display found on newer machines

114. 114 !! The End !!