Radiation transfer in numerical models of the atmosphere

1. Radiation transfer in numerical models of the atmosphere Jean-Jacques Morcrette, AlessioBozzo Room 110 113 Extension 2733 2710

2. Lectures • Lecture 1: Introduction: The Earth’s Radiation Budget • Lecture 2: Radiation Transfer in the atmosphere: Basic concepts and approximations • Lectures 3 and 4: • A quick run through the past of the ECMWF shortwave and longwave radiation schemes • McRad: the present RT parametrisation package • More recent radiation-related results

3. Exercises • Exercise 1: LW and SW heating rate profiles and fluxes in clear-sky atmospheres • Exercise 2: LW and SW heating rate profiles and fluxes in cloudy atmospheres • Exercise 3: Impact of a revised set of radiation schemes on the behaviour of a GCM.

4. References • Liou, K.-N., 1992: Radiation and Cloud Processes in the Atmosphere. Oxford University Press, 487 pp. • Liou, K.-N., 1980: An Introduction to Atmospheric Radiation. International Geophysics Series, Vol. 25, Academic Press, 392 pp. • Fouquart, Y., 1987: Radiative transfer in climate models. NATO ASI May 1986, M.E. Schlesinger, Ed., Kluwer Academic Publ., 223-284. • Goody, R.M., and Y.L. Yung, 1989: Atmospheric Radiation - Theoretical basis, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press. • Morcrette et al., 2007: Technical Memo 538, 539, & MWR, Dec’2008 (the McRad package) • Morcrette et al. 2008: Tech.Memo 573, & JGR, 114 Dec’2008: Prognostic Aerosols

5. Introduction: Outline • Need for parametrisation • Radiation and the general circulation • Global energy balance • Time and space variations of the solar zenith angle • A Top of the Atmosphere (ToA) view of the components of the Earth’s radiative budget

6. The parametrisation problem - 1 Adiabatic processes Cloud Fraction Cloud Water Humidity Temperature Winds Cumulus convection Stratiform precipitation Radiation Diffusion Evaporation Sensible heat flux Friction Ground humidity Snow Ground temperature Ground roughness Snow melt

7. The parametrisation problem - 2 • Assumptions • Assuming an accurate partition of the poleward transport of heat between oceans and the atmosphere (i.e., fixed SST as in operational FC), we need a good estimate of the pole-equator radiative imbalance. • Horizontal radiative fluxes are negligible (Independent Column Approximation, ICA) so vertical profile of radiative fluxes can be computed from local vertical distributions of the relevant parameters as well as the boundary conditions at the surface and top of the atmosphere

8. The parametrisation problem - 3 • In the ECMWF model, the 3-D distributions of T, H2O, cloud fraction (CF), cloud liquid water (CLW), cloud ice (CIW) are given for every time-step by the prognostic equations. • Other parameters, i.e., O3, CO2 and other uniformly mixed gases of radiative importance (O2, CH4, N2O, CFC-11, CFC-12 and aerosols) have to be defined (prognostic O3 soon interactive with rad?). • Prognostic aerosols and CO2, CH4 as part of MACC project) to be used in the thermodynamic equation Radiation black box Profiles of T, q, CF, CLW, CIW, O3 OUTPUT updated from time to time Efficient radiation transfer algorithms DFLW, DFSW to be used in the surface (soil) energy balance equation Climatological data: other trace gases, aerosols

9. Radiation and the general circulation - 1 • What is the time scale? • (traditionally) Large characteristic time scale (but for clear-sky and the stratosphere). Radiation within stratosphere ~ 50-120 days • 10 to 20 times slower than effects of other physical processes Since the main part of the atmosphere (troposphere - stratosphere ?) is far away from state of radiative equilibrium, radiative effects (which are permanent) are generally cumulative and therefore non negligible. They also occur everywhere (NP to SP, surface to ToA). Of course, there are feedbacks! Those between clouds and radiation have a time scale similar to that of the cloud processes, and are therefore much faster.

10. Radiation and the general circulation - 2 • Differences with other physical processes • There exists a well known theory (from Quantum Mechanics to Spectroscopy to Radiation Transfer). • Radiation is exchanged with the outside space: radiative balance determines the climate. • The sun providing the energy input, radiation undergoes regular forcings: seasonal, diurnal. • Radiation at ToA has been globally measured since the 60’s (by operational satellites), with real flux measurements from ERB (1978), ERBE (1985), ScaRaB (1993), CERES (1998), and derived fluxes from MODIS Terra (2000) and Aqua (2003) • Surface radiation has been (roughly) measured at points over almost 40 years. Present programs like ARM, BSRN, SURFRAD measure it with high accuracy. Also satellite-derived SW (and LW) radiation is becoming available. • Therefore, there exist some relatively extended possibilities of validation/verification (radiation in the SW visible and near-IR, in the LW, … in the mW).

11. The global radiative balance - 1 S Difference with actual surface temperature Ts (=288 K) is due to the GREENHOUSE EFFECT: The atmosphere is (almost) transparent in the shortwave range (0.2 - 4.0 mm), and more opaque in the longwave range (4-100 mm) => there exists a temperature gradient between the surface and the ToA S = 1370+/- 4 Wm-2 dm = 1.5 +/- 0.03 1011 m Earth as a black body would give p R2 S = 4p R2s Tg4 => Tg = 278 K Earth with an actual albedo a = 0.30 p R2 S (1-a) = 4 p R2 s Te4 => Te = 255 K

12. The global radiative balance - 2 Solar 237 Terrestrial 343 Latent heat Sensible heat 237 H2O, CO2, O3, ... All fluxes in Wm-2 68 106 390 atmosphere 327 90 169 16

13. Time and space variations of the solar zenith angle - 1 qo = f( latitude, longitude day of the year, time of the day) mo = cos ( qo ) qo Two influences: - amount of energy incident at ToA above of given point of the Earth S = So ( d / dm )2m0 - the atmospheric mass encountered by a solar beam is proportional to 1 / m0 => Need to account for the daily cycle, and the yearly seasonal cycle

14. Time and space variations of the solar zenith angle - 2 • Implications • Better insolation of the equatorial belt than of polar regions (not compensated by the terrestrial/thermal/longwave output) • => equatorial regions are warmer than the polar ones • => same pressure layers are thicker at Equator than at the poles • => since sea level pressure is uniformised by friction in the PBL, given the rotation of the Earth and Buys-Ballot’s law, there should be westerlies • => there is a need to transport heat from Equator to polar regions • oceanic transport • disturbances in the zonal mean flow

15. Time and space variations of the solar zenith angle - 3 • Implications for modelling • In the tropics, the maximum net SW heating of 50 to 60 Wm-2 is only about 20% of the total absorbed SW radiation. • The other 80% contributes to the warming of the tropical surface, which in turn radiates the energy back to space in terms of LW radiation. • Therefore, any systematic error on the determination of the SW column net heating in the tropics can potentially induce an error 5 times larger in the required poleward transport of heat (by the ocean and the atmosphere) • If SST is specified, the whole error goes into the atmospheric contribution, with direct impact on the atmospheric structure, the stability, and the resultant convection (intensity and temporal characteristics)

16. Other considerations … “Anomalous SW (and LW) absorption” • Overall, 70 % of the absorbed SW radiation is deposited at the surface: 169 or is it 150 Wm-2 vs. 237 Wm-2 at ToA. • The controversy is not solved yet. Arguments include: • for clear-sky, lack of water vapour absorption, lack of or improper consideration of aerosol effects (Scattering vs. absorbing, sea-salt, suplhate vs. carbonaceous, dust?) • for cloudy sky, “anomalous” absorption in clouds, linked to inhomogeneity in condensed water (horizontal, i.e., sub-grid variability, and vertical, i.e., overlap-related, distributions, 3D effects) • Cess et al., 1995; Arking, 1996; Li et al., 1997; Wild et al., 1998; Cairns et al., 2000, …, Turner et al., 2012 • ARM meeting 2002: “When all measurements are considered and space-time scales are properly matched, the unexplained absorption at the SGP site is at most around 10%” • Role of few “huge” drops among a given DSD (Marshak et al., 2003)

17. A Top-of-the-Atmosphere view Outgoing Longwave Radiation: OLR Inter Tropical Convergence Zone: high-level cloudiness: Tcloud << Tsurf I Subtropics: clear-sky or low-level cloudiness Polar latitudes: Tcloud not very different from Tsurf Clear-sky OLR obtained by averaging over the clear-sky situations (based on thresholds) Permanent cloudiness

18. A Top-of-the-Atmosphere view : ASW = S (1 -a )

19. A Top-of-the-Atmosphere view Absorbed Shortwave Radiation ASW = Sxy ( 1 - axy ) ITCZ Highly reflecting stratocumulus cloud decks are seen in the SW, not in the LW

20. A Top-of-the-Atmosphere view Cloud forcing: Total - Clear-Sky In the SW: ASWtotal - ASW clear-sky is negative: Clouds cool the atmosphere-surface system In the LW: OLRtotal - OLR clear-sky is generally positive: Clouds heat the atmosphere-surface system Clouds show large SW and LW cloud forcing in the tropics, which largely cancel out. Overall |SWCF| > |LWCF|, clouds have a cooling effect.

21. Outgoing LW radiation: Annual mean Sep’00-Aug’01 McRad introduced in June 2007 before after McRad CERES

22. Net SW radiation at TOA: Annual mean Sep’00-Aug’01 after McRad before before CERES

23. LW cloud radiative forcing: Annual mean Sep’00-Aug’01 before after McRad CERES

24. SW cloud radiative forcing: Annual mean Sep’00-Aug’01 before after McRad CERES

25. Where are we now? CY39R1 (mid-2013) McRad was 36R2 (June 2007) OLR LWCF -3.98 7.93 -3.16 7.89

26. Where are we now? CY39R1 (mid-2013) McRad was 36R2 (June 2007) -5.78 14.20 -0.183 12.9