William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture

1. William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture Chapter 2Computer Evolution and Performance Original Author:Adrian J Pullin Adapted by: Yanru Bao, Tianjin University

2. Topics • History of Computers 计算机简史 • Designing for Performance 性能设计 • Pentium Evolution 奔腾芯片的进展 • Performance Measurement 性能测量方法

3. The first Generation: Vacuum Tubes真空管 ENIAC - background • Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer电子数字积分器和计算机 • Eckert and Mauchly 埃克特和莫克利 • University of Pennsylvania • Trajectory tables for weapons • Started 1943 • Finished 1946 • Too late for war effort (Quiz: When did WWII end?) • Used until 1955

4. ENIAC – details (It’s BIG) • Decimal (not binary) 采用十进制表示/运算 • 20 accumulators of 10 digits 20个10位累加器 • Programmed manually by switches 设置开关手工编程 • 18,000 vacuum tubes 真空管 • 70,000 resistors 电阻 • 10,000 capacitors 电容 • 6,000 switches 开关 • 30 tons • 15,000 square feet • 140 KW power consumption • 5,000 additions per second

8. von Neumann/Turing冯诺依曼/图灵 • Stored Program concept • Main memory storing programs and data主存储器：用于存储数据和指令 • ALU operating on binary data能够操作二进制数的算术逻辑单元 • Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and executing控制器：翻译内存中的指令并执行 • Input and output equipment operated by control unit由控制器操纵的输入、输出设备

9. von Neumann/Turing • 存储程序思想：将事先编好的程序和原始数据送入主存中，然后启动计算机工作。计算机应能在不需操作人员干预下，自动完成逐条取出指令和执行指令的任务。

10. 冯‧诺依曼生平简介 美籍匈牙利数学家 美籍匈牙利数学家

12. Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies 普林斯顿高级研究院, 1946 • IAS • Completed 1952:Basis for virtually every machine designed since then 是后来通用计算机的原型

13. Structure of von Nuemann machine Arithmetic and Logic Unit Input Output Equipment Main Memory Program Control Unit

14. IAS details --- memory • 1000 x 40 bit words （figure 2.2） • Binary number • 2 x 20 bit instructions

15. IAS – von Neumann Architecture • Features • Data and instructions are stored in a single R/W memory 数据和指令使用同一个读写存储器 • Memory contents are addressable by location, regardless of the content存储器内容根据地址访问 • Sequential execution顺序执行

16. IAS – von Neumann Architecture • Set of registers (storage in CPU) • Memory Buffer Register(MBR) 存储缓冲寄存器 • Memory Address Register(MAR) 存储地址寄存器 • Instruction Register(IR) 指令寄存器 • Instruction Buffer Register(IBR) 指令缓冲寄存器 • Program Counter(PC) 程序计数器 • Accumulator(AC) 累加器 • Multiplier Quotient乘商寄存器(MQ)

18. IAS instruction cycle ---two subcycle • First cycle—fetch cycle 取指令周期 The opcode of the next instruction is loaded into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR. This instruction may be taken from the IBR, or it can be obtained from memory by loading a word into the MBR, and then down to the IBR, IR, and MAR. 下一条指令的操作码装入IR，地址部分装入MAR。指令可以从IBR获得。也可以通过由存储器向MBR装入一个字，再将它分解后放入IBR、IR和MAR来获得。

19. IAS instruction cycle ---two cycle • Second cycle—execute cycle Control circuitry interprets the opcode and executes the instruction by sending out the appropriate control signals to cause data to be moved or an operation to be performed by the ALU. 控制电路翻译操作码，并且通过发送相应的控制信号来执行指令。这些信号控制数据的传送和ALU操作的执行。

21. 冯•诺依曼结构的主要思想

22. Commercial Computers商用计算机 • 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation 埃克特－莫克利计算机公司 • UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)通用自动计算机, the first successful commercial computer. 第一台成功的商用计算机 • US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations 由统计局委托制造，用于1950年计算 • Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation成为Sperry-Rand公司的一部分 • Late 1950s - UNIVAC II • Faster 更快 • More memory存储容量更大

25. IBM • Punched-card processing equipment穿孔卡片处理设备 • 1953 - the 701 • IBM’s first stored program computer该公司第一台存储程序计算机 • Scientific calculations 科学计算 • 1955 - the 702 • Business applications 商业应用 • Lead to 700/7000 series

26. The secondGeneration：Transistors晶体管 • Replaced vacuum tubes取代真空管 • Characteristic: • Smaller 体积小 • Cheaper 便宜 • Less heat dissipation 散热少 • Solid State device 固体元件 • Made from Silicon (Sand) 原料是硅 • Invented 1947 at Bell Labs1947年由贝尔实验室发明

27. Transistor Based Computers • Second generation machines第二代机器 • NCR & RCA produced small transistor machinesNCR&RCA公司生产的小型晶体管机器 • IBM 7000 • DEC - 1957 • Produced PDP-1

28. Transistor Based Computers • The second generation saw the introduction 第二代计算机所引进的新技术: • High level languages 高级语言 • Floating point arithmetic 浮点算术运算 • System software 系统软件

29. The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits 集成电路 • Discrete Component 分立元件 • A single, self-contained transistor单个独立封装的晶体管 • Electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete components（throughout the 50s and early 60s) 20世纪50年代和60年代早期，电子设备主要由分立元件组成 • transistors, resistors, capacitors • These facts of life were beginning to create problems in the computer industry.这种情况给计算机工业带来了问题

30. Microelectronics 微电子 • In 1958 the era of microelectronics started. 1958年微电子时代开始 • Literally - “small electronics” “微小的电子技术” • A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and interconnections.The gates and memory cells are constructed of simple digital electronic components.计算机包含门、内存位元和它们之间的互连结构。而这些门和存储器位元是由简单的数字电子元件组成。 • These can be manufactured on a semiconductor这些电子元件可以用半导体制成。 • e.g. silicon wafer (see figure 2.7)

31. 8寸硅晶片，每一个小方格经过切割，封装后就是一片芯片8寸硅晶片，每一个小方格经过切割，封装后就是一片芯片

32. Moore’s Law摩尔定律 • About increased density of components on chip关于芯片上集成元件密度的增长速度 • In 1965, Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel 公司创始人 • Number of transistors on a chip will double every year芯片上的晶体管数量每年翻一番 • Since 1970’s development has slowed a little 七十年代以后发展速度减慢 • Number of transistors doubles every 18 months 晶体管数量每18个月翻一番

33. Growth in CPU Transistor Count

34. Moore’s Law摩尔定律 • Profound consequences 影响深远: • Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged单个芯片的成本没有变化 • Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance集成度更高意味着电路长度更短，所以提高了性能 • Smaller size gives increased flexibility计算机更小，容易放置在各种环境中 • Reduced power and cooling requirements减少了电能消耗及冷却的要求 • Fewer interconnections increases reliability集成电路内部的连接比焊接连接更可靠

35. IBM 360 series • 1964, IBM announced the System/360. • Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 series • First planned “family” of computers • Similar or identical instruction sets相同或相似的指令集 • Similar or identical O/S 相似或相同的操作系统 • Increasing speed 更高的速度 • Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals)更多的I/O端口数 • Increased memory size 更大的内存容量 • Increased cost成本增加

36. DEC PDP-8 • 1964 • First minicomputer (小型机) • Did not need air conditioned room 不需要空调房间 • Small enough to sit on a lab bench小到可以放在实验室的长椅上 • $16,000 • $100k+ for IBM 360 • Embedded applications &OEM被原始设备制造商集成到自己系统中 • BUS STRUCTURE总线结构

38. DEC - PDP-8 Bus Structure I/O Module Main Memory I/O Module Console Controller CPU OMNIBUS

39. Later Generations:Semiconductor Memory 半导体存储器 • 1970 • Fairchild (仙童) • Size of a single core 体积是一个磁核的大小 • i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage • Holds 256 bits 可存储256位 • Non-destructive read 非破坏性读 • Much faster than core 比磁核速度快 • Capacity approximately doubles each year存储容量每年翻一番

42. Microprocessors--Intel • 1968年，诺依斯、摩尔和格罗夫，毅然退出“仙童”，根据摩尔的建议，把新建公司取名为“英特尔”（英文缩写INTEL），寓意着“集成电子”。

43. Microprocessors--Intel • 1971 - 4004 • First microprocessor 第一个微处理器 • All CPU components on a single chip 所有CPU组件在一个芯片上 • 4 bit • Followed in 1972 by 8008 • 8 bit • Both designed for specific applications • 1974 - 8080 • Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor第一个通用微处理器 • End of 70s, 16-bit general-purpose, 8086 • 1985, 32-bit, 80386

44. Generations of Computer • First generation: Vacuum tube - 1946-1957 • Second generation: Transistor - 1958-1964 • Third generation: Integrated circuits – 1965 – 1971 • Small scale integration - 1965 on • Up to 100 devices on a chip • Medium scale integration - to 1971 • 100-3,000 devices on a chip • Semiconductor memory (1970) • Microprocessor (1971)

45. Generations of Computer • Fourth generation: Large scale integration (LSI) - 1971-1977 • 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip • Intel 8080: first general-purpose microprocessor (1974) • Fifth generation: 1978 – present • Very large scale integration (VLSI 超大规模) - 1978 to date • 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip • Ultra large scale integration (ULSI 甚大规模) • Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip • Giga scale integration (GSI) –十亿，千兆

46. Designing for Performance 1 • Support-Demand Cycle Computer Performance计算机性能 DemandsSupports (Motivates) Application Requirement应用需求

47. Designing for Performance 2 • Performance balance—computer design is a constantly evolving art form, why? 计算机设计是一个不断进化的艺术形式 • The rate at which performance is changing in the various technology areas (processor, buses, memory, peripherals) differs greatly from one type of elements to another.从一种类型的元器件到另一种类型的元器件，对于各种不同的技术领域，它们性能提高的速率相差很大 • New applications and new peripheral devices constantly change the nature of the demand on the system.新的应用和新的外围设备不断改变对系统特性的要求

48. Speeding it up (Processor) • Branch prediction:The processor looks ahead in the software and predicts which branches are likely to be processed next. • 转移预测：处理器在软件中趋向于顺序向前执行，并可预测哪条分支指令集或哪组指令将会被执行

49. Speeding it up (Processor) • Data flow analysis:The processor analyzes which instructions are dependent on each other’s results,or data, to create an optimized schedule of instructions. • 数据流分析：处理器分析哪一条指令依赖于其他的结果或数据，来优化指令调度。

50. Speeding it up (Processor) • Speculative execution:Using previous two methods,some processors speculatively execute instructions ahead of their actual appearance, holding the results in temporary locations. • 推测执行：使用转移预测和数据流分析，一些处理器让指令在程序实际执行之前就“推测执行”，并把结果暂时存储起来。通过执行可能需要的指令，使处理器的执行机制尽可能的保持繁忙。