ACM 4063 Communication Research

1. ACM 4063Communication Research Lecture 8

2. Experimental methods • Conducted to test or find out the causal effect of independent variables on dependent variables • Usually conducted in laboratory or controlled environment created by the researcher • Elements of treatment or manipulation and control are present • In true experiment, random assignment of respondents to treatment and control group is important and they are not aware of belonging to which group

3. Most of the early communication theories and models were derived from experiments • Brief the respondents about the experiment and debrief them after the experiment • Pre-experiment data need to be collected from groups involved • Deliver the treatment to groups • Post-experiment data is then collected from all groups • Data are analyzed and comparison is made

4. Double-blind experiment – they do not know whether in treatment or control group • Researchers have to overcome the experimenters’ bias in conducting the experiment, i.e. had specific idea what the outcomes of the experiment would be • Researchers have to control for external or internal influences of the experiment among the respondents and environment, so that the results achieved is solely the outcome of the experiment

5. Types of experimental design include: - full or true experimental design - quasi-experimental design - pre-experimental design - factorial design [Read: Campbell, D.T. and Stanley, J.C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company].

6. Document review • Different from literature review – find things to support our research • Different from content analysis – in depth investigation of the media content according to the objectives of the study • Document review is using the document as data and interpret the findings to fulfill the research objective • Popular research approach in policy study, language study, legal studies and religious study • Sometimes called discourse analysis

7. Data analysis (quantitative) • Steps in data analysis: - Developing coding scheme - Data processing - Data entry - Data cleaning & transformation - Data analysis - Presentation of results

8. Developing coding scheme • Use question number as variable (name) • Assign variable label accordingly • Assign value label accordingly • E.g. 1. What is your gender? [ ] Male [ ] Female Variable name = Q1 Variable label = gender Value label = 1= male; 2 = female

9. E.g. 2. Choose three TV programs that you like: [ ] Sports [ ] Dramas [ ] Music [ ] Movies [ ] Serials [ ] Cartoons Variable name = Q2a; Q2b; Q2c.. Variable label = Sports, Dramas, Music.. Value label = 0 = not selected, 1 = selected

10. E.g. 3. How long do you watch TV in a week? ___________ hours Variable name = Q3 Variable label = Hours watching TV/week Value label = actual numbers

11. Data processing • Done once questionnaires are collected • Sort questionnaires according to location, date, respondents groups, etc • Count and number the questionnaires • Check for missing page, answers • Check for outlier, unexpected response • Check for open ended-questions and code

12. Data entry • Done after data had been processed • Done according to the code book • Manual entry or optical scan sheet • Save data regularly • Run frequency after all data had been entered • Good to save data at different media and attach to email

13. Data cleaning & transformation • It is good to save the original data and work on copy of original data • Check at frequency run print-out • Consult code book • Check for ‘unwanted’ responses • Revise wrong entry • Transform data according to research questions, objectives and statistical requirement

14. Transform ratio data into ordinal • Form new variables by combining variables • Collapsing responses into fewer categories • Forming an index or score • Give new name to new variable so that original data is still in tact • Use compute or record to create new variable

15. Data analysis • Done after the data had been cleaned • Refer to the objectives of the research • Statistical procedures according the level of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio, and continuous or discrete data • Descriptive statistics vs. inferential statistics • Do not over analyzed the data

16. Descriptive statistics • Basis for all statistical procedures • To examine data distribution and decide on advanced statistical procedures • Describing, explaining and summarizing the findings or data • Use measure of central tendency (MCT): mode, median and mean

17. Use measure of dispersion (MD): range, standard deviation and variance • Use of maximum, minimum, percentages, frequencies, proportions and ratio • Use cross-tabulation to show relationship • Use tables, graphs, charts to present findings

18. Inferential statistics • Used for hypotheses testing • Data should fulfill statistical test requirement of interval or ratio, random and independent • To generalize findings to the population • To infer to make prediction • Use parametric statistics: t-test, ANOVA, regression, factor analysis, pearson corr. • Use non-parametric statistics: chi-square, Mann-Whitney U-test, spearman corr., Kruskal Wallis test

19. Presentation of results • Construct tables to summarize data to answer research objectives • Arrange findings in Tables from ‘big’ at top to ‘small’ at bottom, if there is no natural order • Explain or highlight what is the main finding in the Table • Relate finding to theory, past research • State the probable cause of the finding if differs from previous research or theory

20. Comparing percentages is better than frequencies or numbers • Need to combine a number of questions to answer the objective • The order of findings not necessarily follow the order in the questionnaire • Discuss the findings and make conclusion based on the findings

21. Interpretation of results, conclusion, implication & recommendation • Finding: Medium used to get information TV 80% Newspapers 65% Radio 52% Individuals 40% Internet 38%

22. Interpretation of results:

23. Conclusion: According to the study, TV is the medium sort by majority of the respondents to get information, or Eight out of 10 respondents select TV as their main source of information, or

24. TV is the medium that has or carry a lot of information, or TV is the most trusted medium, or TV has higher credibility than other media, or TV has bigger and wider audience, or TV is an influential medium

25. Implication: Other media are not as influential as TV • Recommendation: If you intent to run a campaign or try to influence the people using the mass media, you should use TV

26. Report writing • Should start early, not necessarily after data analysis and improve along the way • Avoid using first personal pronouns (I, me, my, we) - use third person • Use commonly used format of report writing: introduction (background, statement of problem, research questions, objectives, justification etc), literature reviews, methodology, findings & discussion, and conclusion

27. For thesis and dissertation, follow the required format – must learn and practice • Follow the technical writing requirement of citing references, bibliography, tables, graphs figures and other visuals • Be consistent with a particular style of reference format; APA, MLA, in-house • Communication follows APA style

28. Begin some discussion on the table, figure before the tables and other displays are shown, then elaborate on main finding – not repeating what is shown in the table, figure • Number all tables and displays and include or refer to them in writing • Labels all tables and other displays with meaningful title and be consistent in format

29. Use active rather passive voice • Keep language simple and direct to the point • Check the grammar and language i.e. American or British English, BahasaMelayu, Bahasa Indonesia • Acknowledge the references cited in format recommended (name, year) • Write coherently, good transitions and use of sub-topics to connect ideas smoothly

30. Use accurate spelling, punctuations and other writing elements, number the pages • Get someone to proof read and edit the report • Ensure the title convey the overall research • Bibliography, appendixes, additional tables and additional information are done correctly • The report is the image of the research and the researcher(s)