Research Methods Psych 402

1. Research MethodsPsych 402 • LECTURE 4 • COLLECT ASSIGNMENT #1 • VHS – Sci Am #1 not cc • (Double blind controlled, placebo)

2. Assignment 1: LIBRARY SEARCH • Number EEG papers on autism (autism, asperger, autistic) • Number of sleep deprivation papers on high school kids • Number of subjects in the one study on sleep deprivation, naps, and caffeine in high school kids • Number of papers published by Carl Sagan in English • Number of sleep papers published since January 1, 1980 • Number of co-authored papers by DA Kaiser & MB Sterman • Maximum score on Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ Test) • Maximum score on the AQ test a female has ever received • Size in grams of Immanuel Kant’s brain • Publication year of the one book in Wallace library on a feral/neglected child who was discovered in the 20th century Use Medline for questions 1-5 PsycInfo for question 6 any source for remainder

3. STROOP EXPT

4. STROOP EXPERIMENT Independent variable (IV) and levels: INK WORD CONGRUENCE, incongruent (1), neutral (2) Dependent variable (DV): response time to name all ink colors Control variables (CV): screen, order of colors, same colors (stimulus properties), three columns, number of words, subject demographic and related variables, room Random variables (RV): people in room, distractions, motivation/anxiety Possible Confounding variables: order could have

5. STROOP EXPERIMENT Independent variable (IV): Ink-word congruence Dependent variable (DV): Time to name entire list Control variables (CV): Room, experimenter, stimulus properties Random variables (RV): distractors, motivation Possible Confounding variables: practice, fatigue

6. RESEARCH VARIABLES Independent variable (IV): Variable manipulated by researcher Dependent variable (DV): Variable measured by researcher, expected to change as a result of the IV Control variables (CV): Factors kept constant Random variables (RV): Factors allowed to vary randomly. Confounding variable: Factors that vary systematically with the levels of the IV, often present in one level and not another

7. Principle of Falsifiability Idea is not a testable hypothesis unless it can be proven false Freud’s Oedipal complex may not be falsifiable in most implementations of it (and thus not a theory or hypothesis, but dogma) – “if you don’t admit fear of father, sexual love of mother you’re repressing it”

9. Research MethodsPsych 402 • LECTURE 5 – BIAS • VHS Sci Am #2

10. RESEARCH VARIABLES Independent variable (IV): Variable manipulated by researcher Dependent variable (DV): Variable measured by researcher, expected to change as a result of researcher’s manipulation (“depends on IV”) Control variables (CV): Factors kept constant (e.g., confederate, room). Random variables (RV): Factors allowed to vary randomly. (e.g. time of day effects, fatigue, motivation) Confounding variable: Variable’s levels covary with IV’s and may be responsible for changes

11. Source of Experimental Bias • Subject Bias • Social desirability • Expectancy effects like Hawthorne • Conform to demand characteristics Solution: single blind, placebo, clever design, deception (e.g., hostile masculinity design)

12. Source of Experimental Bias • Experimenter Bias • Confirmation bias • Halo effects • Assignment (self selection, nonrandom) Solution: double blind, random assignment, predetermined administrative procedures (e.g., tape record instructions), use experimenters who don’t know hypothesis or expected outcomes SciAm video #2

13. RED GREEN BLUE BLUE RED BROWN GREEN RED GREEN BLUE BROWN Incongruent/more difficult RED GREEN BLUE GREEN BROWN RED BLUE GREEN RED GREEN BROWN BLUE RED RED BLUE BROWN GREEN RED BLUE GREEN RED BROWN

14. RAW GRAND BOLD BOLD RAW BRAIN GRAND RAW GRAND BOLD BRAIN Neutral, easier RAW GRAND BOLD GRAND BRAIN RAW BOLD GRAND RAW GRAND BRAIN BOLD RAW RAW BOLD BRAIN GRAND RAW BOLD GRAND RAW BRAIN

15. Single-Blind and Double-Blind Designs • Breaking the blind of placebo research • In clinical trials, if treatment any good at all, experimenters figure out who got what • in depression study, patients receiving active treatment show mood elevation, increased energy, etc.) • AND participants can figure it out as well!

16. Efficacy & Effectivenss studies • Efficacy studies • Active vs Placebo condition where there is no change in behavior expected • (Placebo effect - spontaneous recovery - is around 30 % for numerous conditions) • Effectiveness study: • Active vs current best treatment e.g., new drug vs Prozac in depression More ethical

17. Source of Experimental Bias • Measurement Bias • Ceiling & Floor effects • Data truncated at top or bottom, respectively, due to limits on possible scores. • E.g., 100% or 0% accuracy - 2 words v 1000 • Choose realistic and reasonable levels. • If manipulation (IV) too strong (sledgehammer effects uninteresting), too weak (miss effect). • If measurement (DV) crude (miss effect), insensitive (trivial change).

18. Counterbalancing – arranging presentation levels of IV to eliminate confounding • Multiple orders, reverse orders • (not needed for between subject designs) • Control for “Items Effect”

19. Experimental research 1. Formulate a testable hypothesis Translate idea into testable hypothesis. Often expressed as predictions about how changes in one variable will be related to changes in another. E.g., Violent media leads to aggressive behavior Formulate and define predictions & variables precisely, unambiguously. E.g., BDI for depression

20. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Specify operations required to manipulate or measure concept. e.g. Anxiety is not vaguely described but explicitly measured by objectively through subjective report scales, behavior checkboxes, etc

21. Twenty-one dimensions of depression: 1. Sadness                              12. Social withdrawal 2. Pessimism                           13. Indecisiveness 3. Sense of failure                   14 Change in body image 4. Dissatisfaction                     15. Retardation 5. Guilt                                   16. Insomnia 6. Expectation of punishment    17. Fatigability 7. Dislike of self                       18. Loss of appetite 8. Self Accusation                    19. Loss of Weight 9. Suicidal ideation                   20. Somatic preoccupation 10. Episodes of crying              21. Low level of energy 11. Agitation In past week including today: 0 = I do not feel sad 1= I feel sad 2= I am sad all the time and I can’t snap out of it 3= I am so sad that I can’t stand it 0-63 max score (30+ indicates severe depression) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Aaron Beck

22. Experiment 1 • My idea: • Spoken words (or ASL) are encoded better and less likely to be forgotten than written words • Precisely: Spoken list will lead to better verbal free recall of short list than only written list

23. 2. Select research method and design Decide how to test your hypothesis. How will data be collected (e.g., survey, observation, experiment)? Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Select most suitable and practical strategy. Issue of control – too little (numerous potential confounds) vs too much (artificial)

24. Mini-Experiment 1 • Experiment • Verbal list, 10 items each • Two types of encoding: spoken/ASL, written • Control for stimuli that could influence memory

25. Mini-Experiment 1: 5 letter nouns, high frequency, concrete, familiar BOARD BREAK CHAIR CHILD CLOSE COAST COURT CROSS DEATH DRAMA DRINK EARTH EIGHT ESSAY FRONT GHOST GLASS GROUP HEART HOUSE LEVEL LIGHT LUNCH MONEY MONTH MOUTH MUSIC NIGHT NOVEL ORDER PAINT PAPER PARTY PHONE PIECE POINT QUIET RADIO RANGE RIGHT ROUND SCALE SCENE SENSE SHEER SHORT SIGHT SMALL SOUND SOUTH SPELL SPOKE STAFF STAND STATE STICK STILL STORY STYLE TABLE TASTE THEME THING THREE TOUCH TRAIN UNDER VOICE WASTE WATER WHITE WOMAN WORLD WRONG MRC Psycholinguistic Database

26. 3. Collect data – on whom? Samples and populations Ultimate goals – to generalize results

27. 4. Analyze data and make inferences Was hypothesis supported by data? Descriptive statistics (averages, range) describe performance on your sample Inferential statistics are used to infer likelihood of obtaining same results in any sample taken from the population.

28. 5. Report findings Scientific progress is achieved incrementally. Share findings with scientists and public via peer-reviewed journals, or conferences, or books. Peer review takes time (up to 1 year after submission), but allows other experts to evaluate and critique your work, occasionally revealing flaws or limitations of the study.

29. Problems with peer review • Common denominator • Competitors review • Cognitive dissonance on reviewer part • No changes suggested means no reason for reviewing

30. Mini-Experiment 1 • Class exercise • Left written; Right oral/ASL • Left side of room will go first • BLANK SCREEN for oral/ASL

31. CHAIR CHILD DRINK FRONT GLASS GROUP HEART LUNCH NIGHT PAPER Left: written

32. WORLD TRAIN RADIO SHORT WHITE WATER SMALL HOUSE TASTE BOARD Right oral/ASL

33. CHAIR CHILD DRINK FRONT GLASS GROUP HEART LUNCH NIGHT PAPER WORLD TRAIN RADIO SHORT WHITE WATER SMALL HOUSE TASTE BOARD Mini-Experiment List

34. RESEARCH VARIABLES Independent variable (IV): Variable manipulated by researcher Dependent variable (DV): Variable measured by researcher, expected to change as a result of researcher’s manipulation (“depends on IV”) Control variables (CV): Factors kept constant (e.g., confederate, room). Random variables (RV): Factors allowed to vary randomly. (e.g. time of day effects, fatigue, motivation) Confounding variable: Variable’s levels covary with IV’s and may be responsible for changes

35. Mini-Experiment 1 • IV – presentation type, levels written or oral/ASL • DV – free recalled number of words • CV – room, experimenter, stimulus properties • RV – subject skills/memory differences, subject’s relationship to certain words, motivation differences, distractions • Confound: alphabetical in first list, others?

36. Research MethodsPsych 402 • LECTURE 6 • Measures: • Distortion, reliability & validity • VHS Zimbardo #19 Milgram • VHS 514 F (Framingham Heart & domestic violence)

37. Elements of a Research Study Hypothesis • Design • Participants • Measures – tools to quantify behavior • Analysis

38. Issues with Measures • Access: how easily data obtained (e.g., Studying self-identity and gender – It would be well illuminated by responses by those undergoing sex-change operations) • Amount: how much data to collect (last year, decade) • Truncation: ceiling & floor effects (e.g., aggression: violence is rare, displays of anger are not) • Distortion: how situation and behavior varies from real world (e.g., Milgram’s experiment) • Reliability: how consistent measure is • Validity: does tool measure intended phenomenon?

39. Distortion / Ecological Validity(May not generalize to real world behavior) “Effect of Punishment on Memory” “Learner” is confederate; mentions untrue mild heart condition. Teacher (true subject) straps learner, samples 45 volt jolt Examiner says shocks may be painful but no permanent damage STANLEY MILGRAM 1933-1984

41. “Effect of Punishment on Memory” Shocks on machine run from 15 (mild) to 450 volts (XXX) in steps of 15 volts Learner’s script: 120 shout about pain 150 demand experiment stops 180 “no more pain!” 300 pounds on wall, screams 330 single cry then answers no more Examiners prod subjects when they attempt to end experiment “Learner” is an actor

42. Milgram’s Experiment 65% gave maximum shock!

43. Reality of the experiment Subject is 50y unemployed man. After delivering 180-volt shock, he pivots around and addresses experimenter in agitated tones: • Subject: I can't stand it I'm not going to kill that man in there. You hear him hollering? • Experimenter: As I told you before, the shocks may be painful, but • S: But he's hollering. He can't stand it. What's going to happen to him? • E: The experiment requires that you continue… • S: I refuse to take the responsibility. He's in there hollering • E: It's absolutely essential that you continue…. • S: All right. (He continues until learner ”passes” out at 330 volts.) • S: I think something's happened to that fellow in there. I don't get no answer. He was hollering at less voltage. Can't you check in and see if he's all right, please? • E: Not once we've started. Please continue, Teacher. • S (sits down): "Cool day, shade, water, paint." Answer please. Are you all right in there? Are you all right, • E: Please continue, Teacher. Continue, please. (Subject pushes lever) • S: You accept all responsibility? • E: The responsibility is mine. Please go on. (Subject continues)

44. 30% gave maximum shock when psychological distance “reduced”

45. “work all the variants”

46. Why so many people acted lethally? Coercive factors: Yale grounds Assured not dangerous by experimenters …many others Results may not generalize to other settings and circumstances

47. Would Milgram’s effects occur in "real life"? Hofling et al. (1966) • 22 nurses on night duty in psychiatric hospital in US • Unknown “doctor” phones nurse on duty and instructs her to give medication to a patient at twice maximum dosage. Maximum dosage of 10 mg shown on bottle label; he instructs her to give 20 mg. He says he’ll sign relevant authorization papers when he arrives in a few minutes. • Findings: 21/22 of the nurses obeyed telephone instruction and began to prepare dosage before they were stopped • However: Drug was unknown to nurses. When experiment repeated with a drug that the nurses had heard of, NONE obeyed.

48. Further testing • Rank and Jacobson (1977) carried out a similar study, but gave nurses opportunity to seek advice. • Only 2 out of 18 proceeded. • Meeus and Raaijmakers (1986) • Similar procedure to Milgram but in Holland with job applicants. • Had to deliver 15 ‘stress remarks’ to try and put off ‘interviewee’. • 22 out of 24 delivered all 15 despite the fact that at the time there was high unemployment in Holland.

49. Issues with Measures • Access • Amount Distortion • Truncation (ceiling or floor) • Reliability: how consistent measure is • Validity: does tool measure intended phenomenon?

50. Validity of measure • Does IQ measure Intelligence? • Does respond to movie violence reflect true response to real violence • Fear Factor Index of Courage (e.g., time spent in coffin filled with worms)