Three Doctrines

1. Three Doctrines • Buddhism→Chan/Zen and Pure Land • Daoism→SectarianDaoism • Confucianism→Neo-Confucianism(TheLearningoftheWay, 道學 Dàoxué ) • ToreestablishthesuperiorityofConfucianism • RejuvenationoftheConfuciantraditionandincorporationofaspectsofBuddhistandDaoistdoctrinesandpractices

2. TherevivalofConfucianism • Neo-Confucianismor“ThelearningoftheWay”representsarecreationandrevivalofConfucianism(儒學 rú xué ) • HanYuoftheTangisregardedastheforerunner • Heconsidered“DaoandDecombinesRenandYi” • Whilecontinuingtofocusontheimprovementofsocietyandgovernment,SongNeo-Confucianistsalsomade effort to redefinehumannature,humanities,anditsrelationswiththecosmos

3. Neo-Confucianismischaracterized by themetaphysics and intellectualism in its discourse on human nature (xing), and humaneness (ren), and thePrinciple (li). • Neo-Confucianism can be the sum of what these terms stand for or one of them • the Learning of the Way (Daoxue), and the Learning of the Sage(s) or the Way to Sagehood, the Learning of Principle (Lixue),

4. [Neo-]/Confucianism • Confucianism • Focuses on the way of the sage kings or Way of the noble person (junzi) as social and political leader. • Neo-Confucianism • Aspires to a spiritual ideal of sagehood for everyone, achievable by methods of cultivation taught by the Five MastersintheNorthernSongand byZhu Xi (image)intheSouthernSong

5. The Five MastersintheNorthernSong: • Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073) • Zhang Zai (1020-1077) • Shao Yong (1011-1077) • Cheng brothers: • Cheng Yi (1033-1107) • Cheng Hao (1032-1085) • Zhu XiintheSouthernSong:synthesizer Confucius, by Ma Yuan, Southern Song, National Palace Museum, Beijing

6. “Three Friends of Cold Seasons: Pine, Bamboo, and Plum” by Zhao Mengjian, Southern Song. Shanghai Metropolitan Museum Cheng (Ch’eng) Brothers: Cheng Hao (left) and Cheng Yi (Right)

7. ShaoYong • KnownasMr.Happinessandonewhopredictedthatsouthernersweretobedominantincourt • FascinatedwithnumerologicalofthebookofChanges(Yijing),heconsideredthedaoasthebasisofHeavenandEarth,whichwerebasisofeverythingelse. • Thedaowasboththecreatoroftheworldandthesourceofthegoodinhumannature

8. Zhou Dunyi: Taiji • Known for his “Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate (or Supreme Polarity)” (Taiji tushuo) • The “Explanation” talks about the Great Ultimate (Taiji), which is a cosmogonic theory concerning the origin of all beings • It represents cosmic creativity that generate all beings • And human being is its highest manifestation • Central theme of his Explanation: • Integration of the metaphysical, psycho-physical, and ethical dimensions of the mind • Integration of Confucian ethics and Daoist naturalism

9. ZhouDunyiregardsthat“sincerity”(cheng)isthesubstanceoftheuniverse,andinnerPrinciple(li)isthesourceofallvirturesZhouDunyiregardsthat“sincerity”(cheng)isthesubstanceoftheuniverse,andinnerPrinciple(li)isthesourceofallvirtures

10. The Great Ultimate generates yang through activity, then it becomes tranquil when the activity reaches its limit. Through tranquility, it generates yin…. • Alternation and transformation of activity and tranquility, yin and yang give rise to Five Agents (Phases) • Zhou: “It is man alone who receives (the Five Agents) in their highest excellence, and therefore he is the most intelligent. His physical form appears, and his spirit develops consciousness. The five moral principles of his nature (humanity or ren, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness) are aroused by, and react to, the external world and engage in activity; good and evil are distinguished; and human affairs take place.”

11. Zhang Zai and Ren • Known for his “Western Inscription” (Ximing) and “Correct Youthful Ignorance” (Zhengmeng) • A new notion or interpretation of Ren, • Ren should encompass all human beings, Heaven and Earth—all should join together as though creatures of one flesh and blood, as appropriate to their kinship • All are constituent elements of a family system “Yuan Lu Tu” (Monkey and Egret)

12. A new notion of Qi • Zhang Zai explained that qi (material force) existed at the beginning of the world and consolidated itself into matter • All matter arises from qi and dissolves into qi and then arises again • TheinteractionoftheqiofHeavenandtheqiofEarthcreatesallthingsthatexists. • “Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst. Therefore that which extendsthroughout the universe I regard as my body and that which directs the universe I consider as my nature. All people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions.”

13. For Zhang Zai, “all people” include all people of the world, regardless of who they are, be they, sick, handicapped, maimed, widowed, orphaned, and dying. • He believes: • “Wealth, honor, blessing, and benefits are meant for the enrichment of my life, while poverty, humble station, and sorrow are meant to help me to fulfillment .” • “In life I follow and serve [Heaven and Earth]. In death, I will be at peace.”

14. Cheng Brothers andthe “Principle” • ChengHao • RepresentstheidealisticSchoolofMind(xinxue) • ChengYi • RepresentstheSchoolofPrinciple(lixue),knownforstressingtheHeavenlyPrinciple(tianli) • Liisthefoundationofalltruthandvalues

15. Cheng Hao: • “All things possess Principle” • Cheng Yi: • “All things under heaven can be understood in the light of their Principle” • “Even blade of grass and every tree possess principle and should be examined” • “Principle of one thing is one with Principle of all things,” thatis“[thereisa]unity of principle and diversity of its particularizations” • “Principleisonebutitsmanifestationsaremany”

16. Principle and Human Fulfillment • “Knowledge”comesfromtheapprehensionofthePrincipleinthings(gewu) • Human fulfillment can be achieved by a combination of two approaches: • Investigation of the principles in things • Introspection of principles in the mind • Two methods serve this aim: • Study the classics, in which key principles were expressed • Examine one’s mind/heart through quiet sitting “Ye he hua” (probably what is called “Coco magnolia” today), by anonymous, Southern Song. Shanghai Metropolitan Museum

17. Buddhism in the Song • Enjoyed the support and protection of many Song emperors, ministers, and ranking officials • Ordination of monks increased dramatically • Central government sponsored the printing of the Buddhist Canon (Dazangjing) • Carved on130,000 woodblocks in 983 • Many temples were recognized as “official temples”, sanctified because they were regarded as possessing magical power.

18. Portraits of emperors were placed in the large Buddhist (and Daoist) temples in Kaifeng • In 1067, the government introduced the sale of the monk’s “ordination certificates,” thus creating many untonsured monks • Buddhist establishments engaged in a wide range of economic activities: • Operating oil presses, water-powered mills, pawnshops, hostels • Buddhists owned large estates and leased small plots to tenants

19. Monasteries flourished and their numbers increased and reached 400,000 monks and 61,000 nuns in 1221, as compared with 260,000 monks and nuns registered in 845. • Large Chan monasteries and pure land societies emerged • The joint practice of Chan/Zen and Pure Land Buddhism became common in Song times • Buddhists produced sutras, such as the Sutra of Parental Love, to promote Buddhist concept of filial piety and counter anti-Buddhist diatribes

20. Two originally Indian Buddhist deities were transformed into Chinese deities • Indian Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara was turned into Guanyin (one who observes the sounds of the world) • Amitābha Buddha was called “Amituo Fo” Reproduction of Guanyin originally painted by Song painter, NPM, Taipei

21. Cult of Guanyin resulted in “Guanyin arts” that depict Guanyin’s many manifestations: • The Water and Moon Guanyin • The White-robed Guanyin • The Fish Basket Guanyin Guanyin, by Fachang, better known as Muxi, Southern Song monk, Daidoku ji, Kyoto

22. Guanyin was worshiped throughout East Asia as • the Goddess of Mercy • the protector of all in distress and misery • the patron goddess of mothers • the bestower of children The Seated Water and Moon Guanyin, Anonymous, Song Dynasty, Nelson Museum of Art, Kansas

23. Transformation of other Indian Buddhist deities: • Maitreya, the future Buddha, or the Buddha yet-to-come, became the Chinese Milefo, the Laughing Buddha, a jovial pot-bellied figure, often regarded as the deification of the “Hemp-bag Bonze,” or “Cloth Sack Monk” (Budaiheshang)

24. by Fachang, Song monk

25. “Eight Eminent Monks” by Liang Kai, Southern Song, Shanghai Art Museum, a series of eight paintings Part 1: Scholar-officials paying tribute to an eminent monk Muxi’s “Bodhidharma” and “Six Persimmons”

26. “Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountain” Left: Anonymous, Southern Song, The Cleveland Museum of Art Right: Liang Kai, Southern Song, Tokyo National Museum

27. “Pure Land Society,” anonymous, Southern Song, later copies of Li Goglin’s works, Nanjing City Museum

28. Left, “Laozi,” by Fachang, Song Dynasty Right: “Five Hundred Arhats Meditating in a Cave” by Zhou Jichang and Lin Ting’gui, Song Dynasty. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

29. Left: “Second of the Sixteen Arhats (Chi. Lohan),” Kanakavatsa (Skt.) by Zhao Qiong, Southern Song, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Right: “Sixteen Arhats Subdued Dragons,” by Lu Xinzhong, Song Dynasty Shokoku ji, Kyoto, Japan

30. Daoism in the Song • Continued to enjoy imperial patronage and consolidate its status • Emperors Taizong, Zhenzong, and Huizong were among the most supportive • Emperor Taizong: • Worshiped Northern Emperor (Beidi) and built the Daoist Temple of Northern Emperor in Kaifeng • Built the Palace of Highest Purity and Great Peace (Shangqing taiping gong) to celebrate Daoist deity General Black Killer, the Perfected Lord.

31. Emperor Zhenzong: • Prime minister Wang Qinruo encouraged the emperor to support Daoism, claiming that a “Heavenly Text” had been bestowed on him, which proved the divine origin of the imperial household • Zhenzong, went up to Mt. Tai to perform the sacrificial ceremonies. Emperor Zhenzong (r.998-1022)

32. After the sacrifice, Zhenzong began his investiture of the [Daoist] gods, making the Jade Emperor the tutelary god of the Song dynasty. Jade Emperor became the emperor of heaven, Jade Emperor. [Yuhuang dadi, or Yudi] • He granted The Perfected Lord the title of “Supporter of Sageliness and Protector of Virtue” (Yisheng zhenjun) and devoted himself to the Lord • Built the Palace of Jadelike Purity (Yuqing gong), the largest imperial building, in the capital and hundreds of Daoist temples throughout the empire

33. Emperor Huizong • Probably the most fervent private and public supporter of the Daoist philosophical tradition and magical practices in Chinese history • Imagined himself a Daoist deity • Used Daoist priests as religious advisors, among them Lin Lingsu introduced a new Daoist school called the Divine Empyrean Daoism (Shenxiao) • Constructed the Sacred Peaks of Longevity (Genyue)

34. Important New School of Daoism • Other than the Divine Empyrean School, there was the Integral Realization or Perfect Truth School (Quanzhen jiao), which pushed the concept of three teachings in one—the three religions formed a family. • The founder, Wang Chongyang, taught his disciples to study the Daode jing, the Heart Sutra (Xin jing), and the Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao jing)

35. The New Role of Daoism • The status of Daoism in the Song • managed to capture the attention of large portions of the official and literati class • became the religion of the townspeople • The Ten Kings and Their Tribunals (Right: Four of the Ten Kings of Chinese Purgatory, by Lu Xinzhong, Southern Song)

36. The Ten Kings and Purgatory

42. New Daoist immortals and gods • Legendary Daoist heroes and immortals (transcendents) were assimilated in local cults • Eight Daoist immortals Right: one of the Eight Immortals, Tieguai Li (Iron-Crutch Li ), by Yan Hui, Yuan Dynasty, Chion ji (知恩寺), Kyoto

43. Daoist gods and immortals • Daoist gods and immortals proliferated • Daoist gods were recognized by Song emperors • Legendary figures became popular immortals “Immortal Iron-crutch Li” by Yan Hui, Yuan, National Palace Museum, Beijing

44. Daoists as Ritual Masters • Daoists assumed the role of ritual masters, becoming administers of the ritual in honor of different Daoist gods or immortals • Served as a mediator between Daoism and the possessed medium of local cults and village religion • Acted as spirit medium who spoke to the faithful and performed spirit writing to answer people’s requests • Attempted to dominate rituals associated with spirit-possession and spirit medium Mask used in modern time for the “Nuo” dance and ritual, 2002, Jiangxi

45. Rituals in Popular Religion • Rituals revolving around spirit-possession became an important portion of religious practice in Chinese society, particularly during and after the Song dynasty. • Two types of spirit-possession • Ritualized: • Spirit-medium • Daoist and Buddhist exorcism • Funeral rites • Non-ritualized: • All common cases of spirit-possession “Festival for Exorcising Demons Causing Plague” Anonymous, Song

46. The Social Role of Ritual Masters • Medium/Surrogate of the deity, generally referred to as “general” or “marshal,” of a specific lineage of therapeutic movement • Represented/controlled the deity by means of registers, talismans, spells, and seals • Two types of ritual masters • Clerical masters: Initiated ones who were members of Daoist organization, e.g., Bai Yuchan • Lay masters: outside of Daoist organization

47. Functions of Ritual Masters • As exorcists: fashi • Provided exorcistic services to cure disease, expel ghost , demon, and spirit • Who were these fashi? • Daoist priests • Lay practitioners • Many of them officials • Spirit-mediums (wu) • Method of exorcism: • Use of mantra (spell) and mudra (hand-seal) • Sword, mirror, talismans, registers

48. Clientele of Ritual Masters • Two common groups: • Uneducated, unsophisticated local people like many ritual masters themselves • Bureaucratic and economic elite serviced by highly literate, worldly, and mobile practitioners. • Many of them ranking officials and their family members • Students and literati of nonofficial status • One special group: • Members of imperial family, serviced by their relatives who were practitioners of therapeutic rituals

49. Official Exorcists and Social Order • High official practicing therapeutic rituals or exorcism assumed the role of Daoist ritual master and had other purposes than curing illness: • Terminated demonic cults and practices • Suppressed spirit-mediums and the like • Forms of suppression included: corporal punishment, tattooing, exile, and conversion to the agricultural or medical professions • Sorcery, witchcraft, heresies (particularly Vegetarian Devil-Worshipping Sects) • Other “perverse cults” (yinci)

50. Ritual Masters as a Social Class • Ritual masters emerged as a social class as a result of: • assimilation of Daoism and local cults after a period of conflict and tension • Commercialization and urbanization • Created opportunities for Daoist ritual masters to expand their functions • fostered the awareness of the existence of new healing and therapeutic experts