Pastured Poultry Nutrition and Feeding

1. Pastured Poultry Nutrition and Feeding Anne Fanatico, Ph.D. Sustainable Development Program Appalachian State University fanaticoac@appstate.edu

2. Nutrition is study of how the body uses nutrients (i.e. consume, digest, absorb, transport, metabolize, excrete) • Good nutrition is basic to good health • Cost of feed is one of the highest production costs in livestock production

3. Nutrients • Carbohydrates • Protein (amino acids) • Fats • Minerals • Vitamins • Water

4. Carbohydrates Sugar, starches Indigestible fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose, etc.); not used extensively by chickens Energy is needed for • Muscular activity, movement, keeping warm • Biochemical energy for maintenance and growth of tissues (glucose is metabolized and ATP is released)

5. Proteins (amino acids) Proteins and amino acids are components of lean tissue, enzymes, metabolites); young animals need protein to build body; There are 22 amino acids in body proteins; 10 are essential to have in the diet • Phenylalanine • Valine • Threonine • Tryptophan • Isoleucine • Methionine • Histidine • Arginine • Leucine • Lysine

6. Fats • Fats are high in energy and carry fat-soluble vitamins • Essential fatty acids • Linoleic acid (18:2, n-6) • a-linolenic acid (18:3, n-3) • Arachidonic acid (can be synthesized from linoleic if sufficient in diet) • Symptoms of inadequacy of linoleic are loss of membrane integrity, increased need for water and decreased resistance (NRC 1994)

7. Minerals Part of body: • Bone , teeth • Egg shell Electrolytes function in fluid balance to maintain concentration gradients • Only about 3-4% of diet Macro-Minerals • Calcium • Phosphorus • Sodium • Potassium • Chlorine • Magnesium • Sulfur

8. Microminerals • Function as activators or cofactors of enzymes • Iron • Iodine • Zinc • Manganese • Copper • Selenium • Molybdenum • Chromium

9. Vitamins Co-factors of enzymes to catalyze reactions in the body Less than 1% of the diet Water-soluble Vitamins (rapidly excreted) • Vitamin C • B-Complex Vitamins • Thiamin B1 Pantothenic acid • Riboflavin B2 Niacin • Pyridoxine B6 Folic acid • Cyanocobalamin B12 Biotin • Choline Fat-soluble Vitamins (can be stored in fatty tissue) • Vitamin A Vitamin E • Vitamin D Vitamin K

10. Water • Animals are mainly made up of water • Lubricant, regulates body temperature, solvent for body’s solid components, transport medium, etc • Animals don’t eat without water • Death occurs rapidly without water in hot weather

11. Body Functions and nutrient needs • Maintenance • Growth • Finishing • Production • Work Reproduction

12. Nutrient requirements of animals National Academies Press http://www.nap.edu/catalog/nrs/ Nutrient Requirements of Poultry 1994

13. poultry. Digestion in the avian • Poultry classified as nonruminant omnivores From Oregon State

14. Digestion in the avian • Digestive organs of the fowl are different from other farm animals • Esophagus is modified • Crop is dilation for storage • Gizzard instead of teeth; grinding organ; grit needed unless feed is pre-ground (then gizzard is not very muscular) • GI tract is short; rapid passage; no lactose

15. Birds have two ceca • Ceca are larger when bird eats high fiber (up to 18% fiber digestion possible) • Large intestine is short in birds; no distinct colon or rectum but rather cloaca

16. Feed Classification • Energy feeds • Protein supplements • Mineral supplements • Vitamin supplements • Nonnutritive additives • Pastures, range plants, green forages • Silages • Dry forages and roughages • Organic requirements: all agricultural products must be organic

17. Energy Feeds • Ex. Cereal grains (corn, wheat, etc.), by-products feeds (corn gluten meal), fruits, nuts • High in readily digestible carbohydrates (starch, sugars) and thus high in energy • Less than 18% crude fiber and less than 20% crude protein • Energy feeds usually low in essential amino acids (methionine are first limiting amino acid for poultry); high in vitamin E and B vitamins

18. Protein supplements Types of protein supplements • Plant origin (organic soybeans and peas); expensive • Animal origin (organic dairy by-products, currently fishmeal does not have to be organic but may not contain ethoxyquinine; meat and bone meal not permitted in organic); very expensive • Synthetic amino acids not permitted in organic (methionine temporarily allowed for poultry) More than 20% crude protein May have high energy but should not be used for energy due to high cost

19. Protein of plant origin is often oilseed meal (byproduct of vegetable oil extraction); about 40% CP and highly digestible • Organic requirements: Chemical extraction (hexane) not permitted • Mechanical extraction or expelling is permitted • Essential amino acids may be low • High in phosphorus (but much is bound as phytate and not available to monogastrics)

20. Dairy byproducts and fishmeal are very high quality protein • Good essential amino acids, mineral content, B vitamins • Novel protein feeds: worms, larvae, algae

21. Raising black soldier fly larvae for protein feed

22. Vermiculture produces both worms and castings

23. Mineral and Vitamin Supplements • Macrominerals • Calcium • Oystershell, limestone (calcium carbonate; oystershell is slow release) • Phosphorus • Plant (mainly tied up as phytate) • Rock (dicalcium phosphate, defluorinated phosphate) • Animal (dairy products; bonemeal not permitted in organic) • Sodium/Chloride • Salt

24. Microminerals • Plants, soil, animal products • Vitamins • Water-soluble (riboflavin, etc) • Wheat bran, dairy products, forage plants • Fat-soluble (vitamins A, E, D, K) • Alfalfa meal, fish oil • Pre-mixes often used

25. Ex. Fertrell Nutribalancer Very common vitamin and mineral among pastured poultry producers • Dicalcium Phosphate, Dehydrated Seaweed Meal, Salt, Calcium Carbonate, Vitamin A Supplement, Vitamin D3 Supplement, Vitamin E Supplement, Menadione Nicotinamide Bisulfite Complex, Riboflavin Supplement, D-Calcium Pantothenic Acid, Niacin Supplement, Choline Chloride, Vitamin B12 Supplement, Folic Acid, Thiamine Hydrochloride, Pyridoxine Hydrochloride, Biotin, Manganese Sulfate, Ferrous Sulfate, Calcium Iodate, Zinc Sulfate, Copper Sulfate, Sodium Selenite, Dried Aspergillus oryzae Fermentation Extract, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Dried fermentation product of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Dried fermentation product of Lactobacillus casei, Dried fermentation product of Lactobacillus plantarum, Dried fermentation product of Enterococcus faecium, Dried fermentation product of Bacillus coagulans, Dried fermentation product of Bacillus licheniformis, and Dried fermentation product of Bacillus subtilis

26. Vitamin and mineral premixes • Vitamins and minerals should not be mixed together due to degradation • Fertrell Nutribalancer mixes vitamins and minerals together but a booster pack is sold for product more than 4 months old

27. Nonnutritive feed additives • Added to rations for nonnutritive reasons (i.e. enhance health) • Conventional poultry production: antibiotics, arsenic, coccidiostats • Organic poultry production: probiotics

28. Pasture, range plants, green forage • Ex. Bermuda grass pasture, clover pastures, wheat pasture • Animals self-harvest or • Many forages are harvested for storage • Moisture content is usually 50-85% • Protein varies (legumes are high)

29. Silages • Plant material ensiled under anaerobic conditions • Controlled fermentation produces acids which kill of bacteria, molds • Common storage method and will keep for years • Many materials can be ensiled • Corn silage, legume forage silages, cannery wastes, roots/tubers

30. Dry forages and Roughages • Ex. Legume hays, grass hays, wheat straw • Feeds contain at least 18% crude fiber • High in cellulose, hemicellulose, lignan • Low in readily digestible carbohydrates (starch, sugars)

31. Forage Characteristics • Green forages, silages, and dry forages have much in common • Qualities of good quality forage • Relatively immature when harvested by animals or mechanical means • Green and leafy with soft pliable stems • Forage may not grow year-round but animals need feed year-round; storage or preservation methods • Cut forage for hay, silage • Stored forage may become roughage over time • Organic requirements: seed must be organic, no GMO seeds, no prohibited practices for pasture (i.e. no agri-chemicals)

32. Many factors affect nutritive content of forages • Weather damage • Soil fertility • Maturity at time of harvesting • Nutrients and digestibility decrease with maturity while fiber and lignan increase

33. Forages for poultry should be low-fiber • Grasses (i.e. orchardgrass, Kentucky blue grass) • Legumes (i.e. clovers) • Increase omega-3 fatty acids in eggs and meat; attract insects for birds • Higher quality feed than grasses (higher in protein, calcium, carotene • Forbs (chicory) • Diversity: Use of warm-season and cold season forages can provide vegetation much of year; feed sprouts in winter

34. To make use of pasture, encourage foraging • Provide many popholes • Open popholes as much as possible • In winter, provide winter garden or veranda • Provide feed/water inside and outside • Provide shade/shelter on pasture • Use active genetics

35. Feeding • Birds need a balanced diet that meets their nutritional requirements • Organic feed is expensive • Small-scale farmers usually feed single poultry diets

36. Protein and Energy Requirements of Poultry (NRC, 1994) Meat birds eat less protein and more energy as they age

37. Protein and Energy Requirements

38. NRC (1994) requirements are based on moderate temperature • In hot weather, birds eat less (% CP should be increased) • In cold weather, birds eat more (% CP should be decreased) • Based on high-yielding birds

39. Poultry Food Pyramid No sweets! Trace minerals; vitamins (1%) Macro Minerals (5%) Protein (20-30%) Grains (60-70%)

40. Feeding Methods • Fully formulated single diets • Phases (starter, grower, finisher) • Basal diet that is modified • Choice • Compound diet plus supplemental grain (whole wheat) • “Mash and grain” • “Mash” is old term: High protein concentrate plus vitamins and minerals plus grain (calcium fed separately for layers) • Free-choice or “cafeteria” • Multiple feed ingredients offered in separate feeders

41. Mix your own • http://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/poultry/feeding.html

42. Purchased organic feed; Ex. Cashton Starter 20% or 22% CP Grower 18% or 20% CP Layer 17% CP 24%-28% Turkey Starter 21%-22% Turkey Grower 16%-17% Turkey Finisher

43. Poultry Feeds Broiler Starter Broiler Grower/Finisher Pullet Starter Pullet Grower/Developer Egg Layer Pellets Egg Layer Mash Egg Layer Concentrate 27% Scratch grains may be fed as a feed stretcher to older birds; however do not feed more than 10% of daily intake, as it will reduce the protein level Broiler Concentrate is designed to be mixed with ground corn to make a 19% CP feed for growing broilers that are well started Ex. Nature’s Best

44. On-Farm Mixing Using a Base Diet for Mixed Flock Farm • Example: Fertrell 19% CP broiler diet • Starter feed: add 8% additional fishmeal to increase CP to 21% • Turkey feed: add 16% additional fishmeal to increase CP to 26% • Pullet grower: Add 10-15% grains to reduce CP to 16% • Layer feed: add 7-8% additional calcium; to increase calcium and reduce CP to 17%

45. Principles Single ration vs. self-selection (“choice”)

46. Principles • Evidence exists that poultry are capable of adjusting intake as a function of nutrient requirements (Larbier and Leclercq, 1994) • Domestic poultry descended from wild birds with ability to self-select nutrients from environment • Poultry tend to eat for energy needs • However feed selection can be specific for energy, protein, minerals etc (Cerrate, 2008)

47. Advantages of Choice Feeding • Energy savings in feed preparation (Blair, 2009) • Use on-farm ingredients • Reduce costs, especially for organic • Reduce transportation of feeds • Reduce grinding and mixing • Reduce energy use • Birds can eat some grains whole (corn difficult) • Birds can grind, mix, and formulate

48. Advantages of Choice Feeding More control over feed • Grower knows feed ingredients (not least cost) • Control particle size; less waste • Keeping grain whole may preserve vitamins • Health benefits to feeding whole grains

49. Advantages of Choice Feeding • Use of whole grains can help fully develop the digestive system • Whole grains increase feed utilization and starch digestion because rate of passage is slowed (Cerrate, 2008)

50. Advantages of Choice Feeding • More precise way to meet nutrient requirements of specialty birds • Birds adjust intake daily to meet nutrient needs • With a single feed, birds can only adjust for energy (Blair, 2009) • Free-choice may result in feed savings (Blair, 2009)