Russia

1. Russia Part 1: The Making of the Modern State

2. Why do we study Russia? • History of Communism (Soviet Union) & Totalitarianism • Transition to Democracy • Example of Illiberal Democracy • Current trend to authoritarianism - Putin

3. Geography • Officially, the Russian Federation • Largest successor state of the Soviet Union • Largest country in the world (area) • 17,098,242 sqmi • Spans 11 time zones • Largest European country in population • 140 million • 73% live in urban areas • Critical location • Between Europe, Islamic World and Asia

4. Russian Cities by Population

5. Russian (Bolshevik) Revolution 1917 • Causes • political, economic & social • World War I • Key figures • Nicholas II (1894-1917) • Alexander Kerensky • V.I. Lenin & the Bolsheviks • Lenin’s interpretation of Karl Marx (Marxist-Leninism)

6. Vanguardism • Group of revolutionary leaders provoked revolution in (non-capitalist) Russia • Grows into a “vanguard party” • Political party that claims to operate in the “true” interests of the group/class that it represents, even if this understanding doesn’t correspond to the expressed interests of the group itself

7. Democratic Centralism • Mandated a hierarchical party structure in which leaders are elected from below, but strict discipline is required in implementing party decisions once they are made

8. Russia Civil War 1918 - 1921 • Reds (communists) v. Whites (anti-communist coalition) • Trotsky and the Red Army • Failure of Lenin’s War Communism • Reds were victorious • Russia physically and economically destroyed by civil war

9. The Bolshevik Revolution • Lenin directed industrialization and agricultural development from a centralized govt • 1922 Bolsheviks formed the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) • Authoritarian strains eclipsed democratic elements • No competing ideologies • Cheka – security arm of the regime was strengthened and restrictions were placed on other political groups • Also a time of international isolation

10. Lenin’s NEP • Lenin’s New Economic Policy • plan to rebuild destroyed Russian economy • allowed some elements of free enterprise • capitalism (small businesses) • large industries remained nationalized • Results: successful initially, but NEP was derailed by Lenin’s death (1924)

11. Power Struggle • Trotsky and Stalin battled for control of the Soviet Union • Stalin won; Trotsky went into exile • Economy worsened during the power struggle

12. Stalinism (1929-1953) • Placed Communist Party at center of control • Allowed no other political parties to compete • Leaders identified through nomenklatura • Process of party members selecting promising recruits from lower levels • Central Committee(group of 300 party leaders that met twice per year • Politburo (above the central committee, elites of party; lead policy-making org) • General Secretary (head of the Politburo, dictator of country)

13. Stalinism (1929-1953) • Collectivization • Took land from peasants and created state run collective farms • Private land ownership abolished • By 1935, over 90% of agricultural land had been taken from the peasants and made into collective farms • It was rationalized as a means of preventing the emergence of a new capitalist class • Lead to widespread famine and deaths • Industrialization • Favored heavy industries, but neglected consumer goods • State planning committee (Gosplan) • Five Year Plan - Set goals for production of heavy industry (oil, steel, electricity)

14. Stalinism (1929-1953) • Totalitarianism and Purges • Media censorship/state control of arts • Party authoritative source of truth • Estimated 5% of population (millions of citizens) were executed for “treason”

15. The Khrushchev Years (1958 – 1964) • Attempts at “destalinization” • Rejected terror as political control • Loosened censorship • Restructured collective farms • Reforms didn’t work - end with Brezhnev • Cold War - talked of “peaceful coexistance” • U2 Affair (1960) • Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) • Poor relations with Communist China • Attempted to reform the economy • Forced to resign by the Politburo

16. Leonid Brezhnev (1964 – 1982) • Period of stagnation • Declining economy • grain production fell; it had to be imported • economy and technology fell behind that of the west • huge amount of money spent on the military • Brezhnev Doctrine: use force to put down revolts in Eastern Europe • Prague Spring (1968) • Poland (1970s-early 1980s)

17. Yuri Andropov(1982 – 1984) • Attempted to revitalize Soviet economy and initiate reforms • Poor health and death slowed reform

18. Konstantin Chernenko(1984 – 85) • Return to Brezhnev-like policies: • reformed movement squashed • Died soon after taking office

19. Mikhail S. Gorbachev(1985-1991) • Born and raised on a collective farm in the north Caucasus region • Worked at a machine-tractor factory • Studied law, politics and agriculture • Rose up the ranks of the Communist Party • Became general secretary of the Communist Party upon the death of Chernenko (1985)

20. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Mikhail Gorbachev – reformer who wanted to adapt communist system to new conditions, not usher in its demise • 3 Main Goals: • Glasnost • Democratization • Perestroika

21. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Economic reform: perestroika • “Economic restructuring” • Characteristics and goals • encouraged free market capitalism for small businesses • allowed more local and regional decision making (less Moscow-centered command economy) • attempted to reform failing agricultural sector • hoped to raise the standard of living for Soviet citizens • make Soviet economy more competitive • Results: significant changes to Soviet economy and life • many citizens lost jobs, health insurance, and security at first • Initially weakened the Soviet Union more than it strengthened it

22. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Chernobyl Disaster 1986: World’s Largest Nuclear Reactor Accident • Causes • human error (emergency water cooling system turned off) • reactor (#4) had no containment structure • Effects • 31 immediately killed and 500 hospitalized • radiation spread in western Soviet Union and Europe • thousands live with illnesses related to radiation • Cancer • immune deficiency (known as “Chernobyl AIDS”) • Greenpeace estimates that in the 20 years since the disaster 93 million people have died resulting from Chernobyl-related cancer • Political results: encouraged Gorbachev to expand glasnost

23. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Political reform: glasnost • “openness” • Goal: Soviet government would be more open about what was happening in the country • Characteristics for citizens • could criticize the government • given more freedom of speech and press • greater access to foreign ideas, news, culture and products • Results • increased Soviet criticism of Soviet society and even Gorbachev • hastened the process of Soviet decline

24. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Political reform: democratization (demokratizatsiia) • process of democratic reform • experimenting with some elements of democracy • Goal: make the government more responsive to popular sentiments • competitive elections (allowed non-communists to run) • ended one-party rule (1990) • Results • Growth of nationaiism • increased demands for self-determination in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe • radicals gained influence, especially those who argued Gorbachev was not changing the Soviet Union enough in terms of capitalism and democracy

25. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Foreign Policy: “New Thinking” • rethinking of international relations in nonmilitary terms • emphasized cooperation, not competition with the West • Eased Cold War tensions with the United States • dialogues with US President Reagan and British Prime Minister Thatcher • nuclear disarmament treaties (ex. Moscow Treaty 1988) • Soviet Union pulled out of unpopular Afghan War (1979-89) • Allowed Eastern European states to overthrow communist governments and declare independence from Soviet sphere

26. Mikhail S. Gorbachev (1985-1991) • Collapse of the Soviet Union and Fall of Gorbachev • Failure of perestroika • Soviet Constitutional Reform (late 1980s-1991) • formation of the Congress of People’s Deputies (legislative body) • loss of one-party rule • Growth of nationalism and self-determination • Failed 1991 coup d’ état: attempt by hard-line communist to oust Gorbachev and return Soviet authority to former days • Leadership of Boris Yeltsin • The final days of the Soviet Union • Baltic states, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine declared independence • Gorbachev resigned and Soviet Union dissolved itself (12/1991)

27. Boris Yeltsin (1991 – 1999) • Elected president of Russian Republic, 1991 (first popularly elected official in Russian history) • Yeltsin’s goals • make Russia democratic • make Russia capitalistic • Given Russia’s history, challenges were extraordinary and difficult to meet

28. Boris Yeltsin (1991 – 1999) • The 1993 Rebellion • Power struggle: Conflict between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament. Yeltsin was given extraordinary powers, which parliament wanted to reduce. • Examples: Yeltsin could issue decrees which had the power of law, could appoint heads of regional governments, and declared himself to be prime minister • Economic reform: Yeltsin wanted to initiate radical economic conversion to capitalism: “shock therapy”; opponents wanted to bring about more gradual change.

29. Boris Yeltsin (1991 – 1999) • The 1993 Rebellion: The Event • Immediate causes • Parliament attempted to impeach Yeltsin • Yeltsin dissolved parliament • The Revolt • many key Parliamentary leaders barricaded themselves into the parliament building (the “White House”), attacked a nearby radio station, and declared their own president (Alexander Rutskoi) • legislators exchanged gunfire with Moscow police • Yeltsin’s response • cut off electricity and water supply • military supported Yeltsin, stormed the parliament and forced the • legislators to surrender; 100 killed • proposed a new constitution

30. Russia Part 2: Institutions

31. Political Structure • 1993 Democratic Constitution…granted democracy but with a very strong executive • Currently considered a hybrid regime: • “Soft authoritarianism” – A combination of formal and informal mechanisms ensure the dominance of a ruling group or dominant party, despite the existence of some forms of political competition & expressions of political opposition • Semi-authoritarian - a political system in which elements of democracy are integrated into an otherwise author

32. Political Structure • Federal System: (specifically Asymmetric Federalism) • 89 regions (subnational units) • 21 are ethnically non-Russian by majority (republics) • Republics differ from other federal subjects • own official language • own constitution • Other federal subjects, such as krais (territories) and oblasts (provinces), aren't explicitly given this right (ex. 2010 – illegal to call head of region a “president”) • central govt was weak under Yelstin, so many ruled themselves almost independently • Movements for independence always a threat – Chechnya

33. Conflict in Chechnya (1994 – Present) • Background on Chechnya • region in southwestern Russia • growth of Chechen nationalism: different language, religion, and culture than Russia • Chechnya demanded greater autonomy from Russian state • Yeltsin’s desire to keep Chechnya as an integral part of Russia • First Chechen War (1994-96) • bloody warfare, much of it in the Chechen capital Grozny • failure of Russia to win demonstrated the ineptness of the Russian military • Yeltsin lost popularity at home • war ended in a truce, but resumed later

34. Political Structure • Putin’s Crack-Down on Regional Autonomy • Military crushed Chechen resistance • Power Vertical (Putin used to describe unified and hierarchal structure of executive power ranging from nat’l to local level) & Creation of Super-Districts • 7 new federal districts (2000; encompassed all of Russia) • Headed by presidential appointee (ensures compliance)

35. Political Structure • Putin’s Crack-Down on Regional Autonomy • Appointment of governors of 7 super districts – ended direct election of 89 regional governors. Now nominated by president, confirmed by regional legislatures • Removal of old governors – Pres. may remove a governor who refuses to subject local law to nat’lconstitution • Changes in Federation Council – governors now appoint one and regional legislature the other • Elimination of SMD in Duma – all proportional and threshold raised from 5 to 7%

36. Semi-Presidential • Hybrid that borrows from pres/parliamentary systems • Strong President • Head of State – President • Vladimir Putin • Directly elected – 2 round model • Six year term* • Limit of two consecutive terms

39. Semi-Presidential System • Six year term started in 2012 (before that 4 year term) • 2 round system, must receive 50+% of vote, if not, top two candidates face off in 2nd round

40. Semi-Presidential System • Powers of the President • Appoint PM, Cabinet & Governors • Issue decrees that have force of law • Dissolve the Duma • Call state of emergency/impose martial law • Call referendums • Suspend actions of other state organs • Head of Gov’t – The Prime Minister • Dmitri Medvedev • Can be removed with 2 repeat votes of no confidence within 3 mths

41. Semi-Presidential System • Impeachment: • Involves two houses of legislative body, the Supreme Court, and the Constitutional Court • If pres dies or becomes incapacitated, PM fills the post until new pres elections can be held

42. A Bicameral Legislature • Weak check on executive power • Duma – Lower House • 450 Deputies (only about 13% women) • Selected by Proportional Representation (changed in 2007 – half SMD, half PR before) • 5 year terms(changed in 2011 – from 4 yr; also, now MPs are granted immunity from criminal prosecution) • Powers • Passes bills • Approves budget • Confirms president’s appointments • Powers are limited • Pres may rule by decree • Duma’s attempts to reject prime ministers have failed

43. A Bicameral Legislature • Federation Council – Upper House • Represents regions • 2 members from each of 89 federal subunits • 1 chosen by governor of each region, other by regional legislature (changed under Putin; originally made of elected governors) • Powers • Mostly delay bills (Duma overrides with 2/3 vote) • Approve presidential appointees and presidential decrees relating to martial law and states emergencies • May change boundaries among republics, ratify use of armed forces outside country, and appoint & remove judges

44. The Judiciary & Rule of Law • Constitutional Court • 19 members, appointed by President, approved by Federation Council • Judicial review • Resolves conflicts regarding constitutionality of federal/regional laws & jurisdictional disputes between institutions • Pres, 1/5 of either house, citizens may request court to look at case • Court tries not to confront Presidency • Supreme Court • Final court of appeals in criminal/civil cases • Does NOT have power of judicial review

45. The Judiciary & Rule of Law • No independent judiciary existed under the old Soviet Union – courts/judges served as pawns of the Communist party • Current status of independence from executive is questionable • One problem – most prosecutors and attorneys were trained under Soviet legal system, so judiciary suffers from lack of expertise carrying out responsibilities in the Constitution

46. The Judiciary & Rule of Law • Rule of Law • Putin initiated law reform – jury trials • Procedural codes for criminal and civil rights • BUT… • Movement toward rule of law continues to be blocked by corruption • Security police continue to operate autonomously • Trials of oligarchs indicate courts still under political control of Putin • Corruption Survey Results • At least ½ of population involved in corruption daily • Bribes for auto permits, school enrollment, proper health care and favorable court rulings