Introduction to PR Research

1. Introduction to PR Research Based on information from S. Zhou & W.D. Sloan (Eds.). (2011). “Research Methods in Communication” Dr. LaRae M. Donnellan, APR, CPRC School of Journalism & Graphic Communication Florida A&M University Spring 2012

2. What is “research”? • Casual definition? • “Real” research must be: • Rigorous and systematic (http://alsn.mda.org/news/als-research-briefs-5)

3. Persuasive Appeals • Logos = Appeals based on logic or reason • Pathos = Appeals based on emotion • Ethos = Appeals based on a person’s 3 C’s: character, charisma, control (http://www.flickr.com/photos/42986762@N05/4594744084/)

4. Ways of Knowing • Knowing by authority • Seek information from “experts” • “Experts” sometimes disagree • Generalize expertise? (http://lunaticadesnuda.blogspot.com/2008/03/gatorate-tiger-tiger-woods-own-gatorade.html)

5. Ways of Knowing • Knowing by personal experience • Through five senses • Direct knowledge • Subject to bias (“The Round Robin: Politics and Government,” http://stumbleinn.net/forum/showthread.php?t=24851)

6. Ways of Knowing • Knowing by tenacity • Willing to accept something as true because it has seemed “right” for a long time • Tradition, habits, superstition (http://www.life.com/gallery/52091/image/76549097/where-superstitions-come-from#index/10)

7. Ways of Knowing • Knowing by intuition • Fast and quick • Hunches and gut feelings • First impressions (http://celebs.icanhascheezburger.com/2010/12/29/funny-celebrity-pictures-intuition/)

8. Ways of Knowing • Knowing by the scientific method • Systematic and rigorous • Minimize influence of bias or prejudice • Replicable (http://www.buzzle.com/articles/famous-african-american-scientists.html)

9. Scientific Method • Science is: • public • objective • empirical • systematic • cumulative (http://www.dbskeptic.com/2008/03/25/faith-versus-the-scientific-method/)

10. Types of Knowledge • Propositional: Have processed information and are aware of knowledge • Acquaintance: Have acquired through actual contact • How-to: Have procedural knowledge • “I know PR.” (http://www.ksapr.com/pr-for-pr)

11. Types of Research • Exploratory vs. explanatory • Exploratory: What are social media? • Explanatory: Do social media affect people’s perceptions of presidential candidates? (http://www.marketinghomeproducts.com/2011/07/07/the-number-1-rule-for-social-media-strategies/)

12. Types of Research • Inductive vs. deductive • Inductive: Observe, collect data, generalize • Deductive: Start with theory then predict • The “circle of science” • Inductive & deductive • Replicated research • Cumulative findings (http://www.floridagoldfruit.com/fresh-fruit/tangerines.html)

13. Types of Research • Basic vs. applied • Basic: Focuses on building or refuting theories • Applied: Focuses on solving specific problems • Issue: How do people learn? (http://www.haringcenter.washington.edu/)

14. Types of Research • Quantitative vs. qualitative • Quantitative: Assumes there is an objective, single reality; uses numbers to count that reality • Qualitative: Assumes there are many realities; focuses on things other than numbers (http://www.stratcom.net/services.html)

15. How People Perceive Reality • Positivism vs. constructivism • Positivist: Evidence gathered through senses; as an outsider, classifies and quantifies data; constructs statistical models • Constructivist: People construct multiple realities based on context; as an insider, lets multiple methodologies emerge (http://uregina.ca/~hadjista/about.html)

16. Research Steps #1-#3 • Identify topic • Do literature review • Select research design • Experiment, survey, focus group, content analysis, benchmarking, SWOT analysis, etc. (http://deborahgabriel.com/2011/06/20/literature-review-completed-at-last/#.TwoievnxXVo

17. Hypotheses vs. Research Q’s • Hypotheses • Dependent variable: What you measure • Independent variable: What you manipulate • H1: People who live in a clean environment and lead a healthful lifestyle live longer than those who don’t • Research questions • What affects longevity? • Who lives the longest? • Does race/age matter? • Theories • Explanation based on observation, experi- mentation & reasoning, used to explain & predict natural phenomena. (http://latriplehelice.blogspot.com/2009/08/los-alimentos-organicos-son-solo-un.html)

18. Research Steps #4-#6 • Collect data • Analyze data • Draw conclusions • Internal validity: Measure what you say you are • External validity: Results generalizable to larger setting/public (http://www2.pciaonline.org/2007AfricaWorkshopProceedings/index.pdf)

19. Research Steps #7-#8 • Report results • Replicate findings • “One study does not prove anything.” (Zhou, p. 20) • Reliability = The extent to which the instrument yields the same results on repeated trials (http://foureyesfortwins.wordpress.com/2011/11/03/is-the-internet-reliable-nowadays/)

20. Communication Research History • Early research more like reporting • Historical and descriptive • Auguste Comte, French philosopher • Promoted positivism (emphasis on empirical research through the senses) • Ralph Nafziger • Promoted quantitative research in the 1940s-1950s • Foundations got into the act • Supported quantitative research • Payne Fund: How movies affect children Auguste Comte (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte)

21. Communication Research History • 1920s-1930s • Were the media causing or at least exacerbating the problems of organized crime, juvenile delinquency? – Empirical research used to see if this were true. • J.B. Watson: Stimulus-response • W.I. Thomas & Gordon Allpert: Attitudes • Are people predisposed to respond a certain way? • Can ads influence attitudes toward products and increase sales? • Attitude scales developed. (http://ageinghealthily.wordpress.com/)

22. Communication Research History • 1940s • Paul Lazarsfeld – Empirical studies of media effects • Robert Merton – Focus groups • Herta Herzog – Media “gratification” • Joseph Klapper – Media reinforce, not cause/change • WW II • Carl Hovland – Propaganda • Moved research from just studying differences in attitudes to studying how propaganda changes attitudes (http://www.guidespot.com/guides/world_war_ii_posters)

23. Communication Research History • Content analysis: • Early 20th century focus on content of newspapers, movies • Harold D. Lasswell – Mass media content (Hierarchy of Needs) • 1950s-1960s • Focus on quantitative research in journalism/communication programs at universities • Ph.D. became more important hiring criterion • Growth of professional associations (http://communicationleadership.usc.edu/blog/leading_journalism_association_spotlights_cclp_research_on_funding_the_news.html)

24. Communication Research History • 1970s-1990s • Re-emergence of qualitative research • Cultural studies • Blending of quantitative and qualitative • But they reflect different worldviews • Triangulation – Richer results (http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100047/chapters/Data-Collection@-Building-a-Valid-and-Reliable-Data-Collection-Plan.aspx)

25. Review • Define the three types of persuasive appeal. • Describe the five ways of knowing. • Define the difference between a hypothesis and a research question. • Describe the eight steps of doing research. • Describe the difference between quantitative and qualitative research. Give examples of each. • Briefly describe how communication research has evolved over time. (http://sakitaholley.com/2011/06/21/how-to-get-a-pr-job/)