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CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 8. The Information-Processing Approach. Memory - learning that has persisted over time. . 2. Learning Goals. Describe the information-processing approach. Characterize attention and summarize how it changes during development.

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CHAPTER 8

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  1. CHAPTER 8 The Information-Processing Approach

  2. Memory - learning that has persisted over time. 2

  3. Learning Goals • Describe the information-processing approach. • Characterize attention and summarize how it changes during development. • Discuss memory in terms of encoding, storage, and retrieval. • Draw some lessons about learning from the way experts think. • Explain the concept of metacognition and identify some ways to improve children’s metacognition.

  4. The Information-Processing Approach The Nature of the Information-Processing Approach Information, Memory, and Thinking Mechanisms of Change Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information

  5. Characteristics of Information Processing The information-processing approach to learning emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

  6. The Information-Processing Approach Attention Developmental Changes What Is Attention?

  7. What Is Attention? Attentionis the focusing of mental processes • Sustained attention • Selective attention • Divided attention

  8. Getting Students to Pay Attention Encourage attention and minimize distraction Use cues and gestures for important material Beinteresting Focus on active learning and be aware of individual differences Use media and technology to make learning enjoyable

  9. The Information-Processing Approach Memory What Is Memory? Retrieval and Forgetting Encoding Storage

  10. Enter the Debate Should teachers require students to engage in rote memorization? YES NO 8.10

  11. Memory - is the retention of information over time RETRIEVAL ENCODING STORAGE Gettinginformationinto memory Retaininginformationover time Takinginformationout of storage Monitor (Retrieval) Disk (Storage) Keyboard (Encoding) Sequential Process

  12. Flashbulb Memory Flashbulb memory - a highly emotional event can cause a clear, strong, and persistent memory. 12

  13. Encoding Strategies REHEARSAL Consistent repetition of information over time DEEP PROCESSING Deeper processing, better memory ATTENTION Concentrate and focus ORGANIZATION Aided by chunking CONSTRUCTING IMAGES ELABORATION Adds to distinctiveness

  14. Levels of Processing “Whale” Q: Did the word begin with a capital letter? Structural Encoding Shallow Q: Did the word rhyme with the word “weight”? Phonemic Encoding Intermediate Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street. Semantic Encoding Deep Craik and Lockhart (1972)

  15. Results

  16. Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid especially when combined with semantic encoding. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking

  17. Organizing Information for Encoding Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. • Chunking • Hierarchy

  18. Chunking Organizing items into familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the number below. 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 chunk the number and see if you can recall it easier. 1776 1492 1812 1941.

  19. Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

  20. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory

  21. Memory’s Time Frames Sensory Memory – Retains information for an instant Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retains for 30 seconds without rehearsal Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long period of time

  22. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long Sensory Memories

  23. Developmental Changes in Memory

  24. Working Memory (7 ± 2 or 5-9 bits of information) and short duration (about 20 – 30 seconds). George Miller

  25. Chunking Capacity of working memory may be increased by “Chunking.” F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks

  26. Baddeley’s Model of Memory

  27. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory

  28. Semantic Memory Episodic Memory 28

  29. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives

  30. Anterograde & Retrograde Amnesia HM cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. HM cannot remember 1-3 years before the surgery. We call this Anterograde Amnesia (HM) retrograde amnesia No New Memories Memory Intact Surgery

  31. Implicit Memory Each time he plays it he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. A C B HM can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). 31

  32. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.

  33. Representing Information in Memory Network Theories Schema Theories - Nodes stand for labels and concepts - Network is irregular and distorted - Long-term searches are not exact - Retrieved information is fit into an existing formation (schema) - Schemas: concepts, knowledge, or information about events that already exist in the mind and influence the way we encode information

  34. Déja Vu Déja Vu means “"I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

  35. Retrieval

  36. TUV • ZOF • GEK • WAV • XOZ • TIK • FUT • WIB • SAR • POZ • REY • GIJ (Primacy Effect) Better recall Poor recall (Recency Effect) Better recall Serial Position Effect

  37. Context Effects (encoding specificity) 37 According to the principle of encoding specificity, the way we encode a word during original learning determines which cues will remind us of that word later.

  38. Context Effects 38

  39. Moods and Memories (state-dependent memory) Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood. Emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues. Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

  40. Forgetting

  41. Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell hose Fire Truck fire smoke truck heat red

  42. Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes the blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

  43. Forgetting as Interference

  44. Proactive interference – problem driving in England after learning in US.

  45. Memory Construction 46 Misinformation Effect:Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

  46. Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned about the event. Misinformation and Imagination Effects 47 Depiction of the actual accident.

  47. Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? 48

  48. Memory Construction 49 A week later they were asked; Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

  49. Source Amnesia 50 Source Amnesia:Attributing an event to the wrong source

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