All things come from the earth, and to earth they all return. MENANDER (342-290 B.C. )

1. All things come from the earth, and to earth they all return. MENANDER (342-290 B.C.)

2. Terrestrial Ecology (3) _______ is the study of how organisms interact with one another and with their physical environment of matter and energy. ___________, the different forms of life on earth, can be classified into different species based on certain characteristics. For sexually reproducing organisms a _______ is a set of individuals that can mate and have fertile offspring. 1.75 Million species identified Insects make up most of the known species 751,000 Perhaps 10–14 million species not yet identified

3. Some “Special Species” Some species are so important to the normal functioning of an ecosystem that without them the biodiversity of the ecosystem would collapse, while others are so detrimental to an ecosystem that their presence may cause an ecosystem to collapse. ___________________________________________________________________________. ___________________is a species whose very presence contributes to diversity of life and whose extinction would lead to the extinction of other forms of life. ____________________ ___________________________________________________________________________. Examples: Grizzly bear transfer nutrients from the oceans to the forest (salmon-fecal matter). Sea stars eat organisms that would destroy coral reefs in higher numbers. Sea otters kill sea urchins that destroy the kelp forest. Prairie dogs dig burrows that other species use as homes.

4. ____________________are species that change or reshape the ecosystem opening new niches and enhancing biodiversity. Examples: Elephants trample the ground and push over trees creating openings for grasses and other plants. _______________are species that are very sensitive to environmental change. If there numbers begin to drop it provides an early warning of damage to the ecosystem. Examples: _____________________ _________________________________________. __________________are species the invade or are introduced to an area they are not normally found and _____________________________________ _______________They can drive native species to extinction. Example: Killer bees, zebra mussels, Kudzu vine

5. Ecologists Study Connections in Nature The Earth has four life support systems that interact with each other. ___________________. Atmosphere: An envelope of gases that surround the Earth. The inner layer is called the ________________. It contains a majority of the air we breath and is ___________________________. The remaining 1% consists of the greenhouse gases, methane, carbon dioxide and water vapor that trap heat and warm the lower atmosphere. All of the Earth’s weather occurs here. The next layer up is the _____________ ____________________________________and allows life to exist on land.

6. 2. _______________: Consists of all of the water on or near the Earth’s surface. Liquid water (on the surface or underground), ice (polar ice, glaciers, icebergs and permafrost: frozen soil) and water vapor in the atmosphere. 71% of the water is in the oceans. 3. ___________: Consists of the hot core, the rocky mantle and the thin outer crust. 4. _________: Consists of all of the living organisms contained in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere.

7. Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil where life is found ___________ A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy ___________ Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other. Habitat is a term used to describe where a population or individual normally lives. ____________ A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place. Individuals of a population vary slightly in their genetic makeup, which causes them to look and act different. This variation is called genetic diversity. ___________ ___________ An individual living being The fundamental structural and functional unit of life _________ Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements __________ Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties _________ Divisions of the biosphere

8. Life on Land Average annual precipitation Biologists have classified the terrestrial (land) portion of the biosphere into biomes. 100–125 cm (40–50 in.) 75–100 cm (30–40 in.) 50–75 cm (20–30 in.) 25–50 cm (10–20 in.) below 25 cm (0–10 in.) _________________________________ _________________________________. Denver Baltimore San Francisco St. Louis Coastal mountain ranges Sierra Nevada Great American Desert Rocky Mountains Great Plains Mississippi River Valley Appalachian Mountains Prairie grassland Coastal chaparral and scrub Coniferous forest Desert Coniferous forest Deciduous forest

9. Components of an Ecosystem Ecosystems contain ___________________ ___________________ components. Some organisms produce the nutrients they need, others get their nutrients by consuming other organisms, and some recycle nutrients back to producers by decomposing the wastes and remains of organisms. Abiotic necessities: _____________ __________________________________________________________. Biotic necessities: ____________________ _____________________________________________________________________.

10. Range of Tolerance Different species and their populations thrive under different conditions. Some need bright sunlight, other flourish in shade. Some need a hot environment, while other prefer it cold. Each population has a _______________to variations in the environment. This tolerance is the population's ability to survive as environmental conditions change. Some species have a broad tolerance, while others have a very narrow one. This keeps ____________________________. A ___________________is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources, (for example, a heterotroph with a varied diet). The raccoon is a generalist because it has a natural range that includes most of North and Central America, and it is omnivorous, eating berries, insects, eggs and small animals. A ___________________can only thrive in a narrow range of environmental conditions or has a limited diet. Herbivores are often specialists, but those that eat a variety of plants may be considered generalists. A well-known example of a specialist animal is the koala which subsists almost entirely on eucalyptus leaves.

11. Trout Individuals within a population may have slightly different tolerances based on ______________ _____________________________________.

12. Abiotic Factors can Limit Population’s _________________________: Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance The limiting factor is the item that ___________________________________. On land: Water, soil, temperature, sunlight, nutrients. In water: Temperature, sunlight, nutrient availability, dissolved oxygen, and salinity.

13. Biotic Factors Producers and Consumers Are the Living Components of Ecosystems. Producers and consumers are assigned a _____________________based on where they get their energy (nutrients) from. Photosynthesis ______________________________(self-feeders), they make their own nutrients from compounds in the environment. On land most producers are green plants that capture about _____ of the sun’s energy and convert and store it as ____________. In freshwater and marine ecosystems, ____________ ____________ are the major producers near shore. In open water the dominant producers are _______________, microscopic floating organisms.

14. Consumers All other organisms in an ecosystem are consumers. Consumers are __________________ that eat other organisms, which include animals, bacteria and fungus. Such organisms may consume by various means, including predation, parasitization, and biodegradation. Primary consumers: Also known as __________are plant eaters. Secondary consumers: Also known as __________ are meat eaters. Most are animals, but some are plants (Venus fly-trap). Tertiary consumers: Carnivores that eat other carnivores. Sometimes called ________________, they are usually on top of food chains, capable of feeding on secondary consumers and primary consumers (Humans)

15. Omnivores and Decomposers Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals. Examples: pigs, foxes, cockroaches, and humans. They are consumers that can be found at any level. • Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi and some insects that consume dead organisms and/or their waste by ______________________________________________________. Detritivores: A group of decomposers such as mites, worms, insects and catfish.______ __________________ Sometimes referred to as scavengers like vultures. ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Decomposition: The break down of dead material and the return of the chemicals back to the soil. This happens _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

16. How do Organisms Fuel their life Processes? Producers, consumers and decomposers use the chemical energy stored in _________________ _______________________________ (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate ATP) to fuel their life processes. ________________________________: In the presence of oxygen cells will: _________________________________: In the absence of oxygen cells will partially release the energy stored in glucose and produce ethyl alcohol (wine, beer and spirits), acetic acid (vinegar), lactic acid (muscle cells) and/or hydrogen sulfide gas.

17. Productivity In ecology, productivity or production refers to the rate of generation of ______________ in an ecosystem. Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity (making new tissue). Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. In the context of energy this is often used to mean plant based material, but biomass can equally apply to both animal and plant derived material. The vital difference between biomass and fossil fuels is one of _____________.

18. GPP and NPP ___________________________: is the rate at which an ecosystem’s producers (usually plants) convert solar energy into chemical energy found in their tissues. __________________________: To stay alive, grow and reproduce, producers must use some of their stored chemical energy for their own respiration. NPP is the energy left after respiration. _________________ R is the amount of energy used by primary producers for ___________________and maintenance of existing tissues.

19. Productivity is Vital to K. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Carrying capacity is The maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support over time. A: Represents the biotic potential of the species B: Shows how the population overshoots the carrying capacity C: Represents the logistic growth D: Represents linear growth E: Carrying capacity- the maximum number of individuals that can be supported by a particular ecosystem.

20. The Commons A common-property resource, which are owned by no one but are available to all users free of charge. Most are potentially renewable. Ex. _____________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. How could this be a common?

21. Energy in an Ecosystem The chemical energy stored as nutrients in the bodies and waste of organisms flows through ecosystems from one trophic (feeding) level to another. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and webs. As energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and webs, the amount of chemical energy available to organisms at each succeeding feeding level decreases. _______________________ _____________________________________________________________________________. Eventually an ecosystem and biosphere would run out of energy if they were not powered by a continuous inflow of energy from the ________.

22. Food Web In natural ecosystems, most consumers feed on more than one type of organism and organisms are eaten or decomposed by more than one type of consumers. This forms a complex network of interconnected food chains called a food web. ____________

23. Energy Decrease at Each Trophic Level Energy transfer through a food web is very ___________ because, with each transfer, some usable energy is degraded and lost to the environment as _______________. Ecological efficiency: percentage of useable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next. 10% rule: Ecological efficiency is only about 10%. 90% of the energy obtained by an organism is used __ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

24. Results of Energy Loss The more trophic levels there are in a food web, the greater the cumulative energy loss is. • The Earth can support more people if they eat at a _________________(you get more out of it). By consuming grains, vegetables and fruits rather than cattle will help sustain the world’s food sources. • About 2/3 of the world’s population survive by eating _________________ at the first trophic level. Mainly because they cannot afford meat. • The large loss in chemical energy explains why food chains and webs have no more than _________trophic levels. Too little energy is left after 4 or 5 transfers. • This is why top predators are _______ • _______________________________ • ______________________________.

25. Recycling Nutrients The elements and compounds that make up nutrients move through the air, water, soil, rock and living organisms in ecosystems and in the biosphere in biogeochemical cycles. The cycles are driven directly and indirectly by _________________________________________. Biosphere Carbon cycle Sulfur cycle Phosphorus cycle Nitrogen cycle Water cycle Heat in the environment Heat Heat Heat

26. Hydrological Cycle The water cycle is powered by incoming solar energy and collects, purifies and distributes the Earth’s fixed water supply. Three main processes: 1. Evaporation: Heat changes liquid water to water vapor. 84% of atmospheric water vapor comes from the ocean. This helps purify water. 2. Precipitation: Gravity pulls down water as rain, sleet, snow and dew. 3. ___________: Evaporation of water from plant’s leaves. Responsible for 90% of water vapor over land. __________________________________________________________.

27. Water Storage ______ of the Earth’s water is stored in the oceans as salt water. Most precipitation becomes surface runoff and replenishes streams, lakes and sculpts (soil erosion) the Earth’s topography as it makes its way to the ocean _________________________. Some water is stored in the soil where it is used by plants and turned into carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Some precipitation sinks below the soil through permeable rock, sand and gravel (purifies it). ________________ _______________________________. Some is stored as glaciers for long term storage

28. Human Impact on the Water Cycle Besides polluting the water supply, we alter the water cycle in three major ways: 1. We take water from lakes, streams and groundwater _______ ___________________________________________________. 2. We clear vegetation from land for agriculture, mining, road building and cover much of the land with concrete. This increases runoff and reduce recharge areas. Recharge areas ___ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Vegetation clearing also increases soil erosion (including landslides). 3. By paving the landscape we are also _____________________________.

29. Carbon Cycle The energy to cycle carbon through the Earth comes from two sources: 1. Solar energy (sunlight) is used by plants for _________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 2. The heat from the Earth’s interior allows the energy for subduction and volcanism which releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Aerobic (cellular) Respiration (a process that plants and animals use to release the energy stored in food) release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.

30. The Ocean is the Largest Carbon Sink Carbon is stored in the oceans as ___________________________________________________________________________. After death these shells can become part of the sediment forming a sedimentary rock called ______________________ which carbon can be released by volcanism and acid rain. Some carbon is stored in the Earth as graphite, methane gas, petroleum, or coal (fossil fuels). Humans alter the carbon cycle by adding excess CO2 to the atmosphere through: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

31. Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is the _______________ ____________________________. Plants and animals cannot use nitrogen gas. In order for nitrogen to become useable it must be extracted from the atmosphere. Nitrogen can be “fixed” by ____________ (nitrogen fixation) and used by plants.

32. FixNAAD ANPAN Specialized nitrogen fixing bacteria, living in the nodules on the root of various plants, convert free gaseous nitrogen into nitrogen compounds like ammonia that can be used by plants. Can also be done by lighting and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in water. Ammonia (NH3) Nitrates (NO3-)/Nitrites (NO2-) Proteins, DNA, Amino Acids Ammonia Nitrogen gas (N2) ANPAN Fix NAAD ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ Conversion by soil bacteria Plant roots absorb ammonia, ammonium ions and nitrate ions for use in making molecules such as DNA, amino acids and proteins. (Nitrites are toxic to plants) After nitrogen has served its purpose in living organisms, decomposing bacteria convert the nitrogen-rich compounds, wastes, and dead bodies into simpler compounds such as ammonia. Also known as mineralization. Bacteria in waterlogged soil and in the bottom of lakes, oceans and swamps reduce nitrates and nitrites into nitrogen gas and release it into the atmosphere.

33. Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle We intervene in the nitrogen cycle in several ways: 1. We add nitric oxide (NO) into the atmosphere when we __________________________ ___________________. The nitrogen can return to the Earth as _____________________. 2. We add nitrous oxide (N2O) to the atmosphere through the action of anaerobic bacteria on livestock waste and commercial inorganic fertilizers. It is also a greenhouse gas. 3. Overwhelm aquatic systems with excess nitrates from agricultural runoff and sewage discharges. Results in ___________________ which cause harmful algal blooms. 4. Remove nitrogen from topsoil when we harvest nitrogen rich crops, irrigate crops (washes nitrates out of the soil). Human activities such as production of fertilizers now fix more nitrogen than all natural sources combined.

34. Phosphorus Cycle Phosphorous cycles through water, the Earth’s crust, and living organisms. _________________ ______________________________________. Because most soils contain little phosphate, and phosphorus is usually insoluble in water and is not found in ______________________________, it is the limiting factor for plant growth in most ecosystems. The phosphorus cycle is slow and phosphorus is usually found in rock formations and ocean sediments. Human impact on the phosphorus cycle: 1. We remove large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make ____________________________________. 2. We reduce phosphorous in tropical soils by ________________. 3. We add excess phosphates to aquatic systems from runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers. A second source of cultural eutrophication.

35. Sulfur Cycle Sulfur is stored underground in rocks and minerals as sulfate salts (SO42-) and buried deep under ocean sediment. When released into the atmosphere it falls to the Earth as __________ ______________________________________. Sulfur is released naturally as hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) which is a poisonous gas that smells like rotten eggs. H2S comes from __________ ___________________________________________________________________________. Human impact on the sulfur cycle: Releasing it into the atmosphere 1. We take sulfur containing ______________ _____________________________________, releasing sulfur into the atmosphere. • 2. Refining sulfur containing petroleum to make gasoline. • 3. Convert sulfur-containing metallic ores into free metals such as copper, lead, and zinc releasing sulfur dioxide into the environment.

36. Acid Rain The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a solution is. It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic. It is a log base 10 scale where each number represents a 10 fold (ten times) change in concentration. Normal Precipitation is ________. Acid rain is caused by nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels (gasoline and coal). The pH ranges from ___________ and determines the damage that will occur.

37. When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe. John Muir

38. Climate (7) An area's climate is determined mostly by solar radiation, the earth’s rotation, global patterns of air and water movement, gases in the atmosphere, and the earth’s surface features. _________ is a local area’s short-term physical conditions such as temperature and precipitation. ________ is a region’s average weather conditions over a long time. Mainly dependent on precipitation and temperature. Regional climate is most influenced by latitude (position on Earth from the equator) and altitude. 3 factors determine how heat and moisture are distributed: 1. Uneven heating of the Earth’s surface by the sun. The equator is heated much more than the poles. Sunlight strikes the equator directly making it hot and hits the poles at an angle making them cooler.

39. 2. Rotation of the Earth on its axis. The equator spins faster than the poles. Warm air moving north and south away from the equator are instead deflected west and east. This ___________ sets up prevailing winds that blow almost continuously. The Coriolis Effect caused the winds not to travel in a straight path, instead they spiral clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and spiral counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

40. 3. Properties of air, water and land. Heat from the sun evaporates ocean water creating giant convection cells that circulate air, heat and moisture vertically and from place to place. Air near the Earth’s surface is the warmest and rises (warm air is less dense). Air at higher elevations is cooler and sinks (Cold air is more dense). This sets up convection processes and is the primary cause for winds. Wind is caused by the pressure gradient force. _______________________________________ ____________. The air moves from high to low, causing wind. The greater the pressure difference the stronger the wind. Convection cells caused by warm oceans can lead to hurricanes. Heat and moisture are distributed over the earth’s surface by vertical currents, which form six giant convection cells at different latitudes.

41. Convection Cells Determine the Location of Terrestrial Biomes. Three types of air circulation cells associated with latitude exist: Hadley, Ferrel and polar. As air rises from the equator, it spreads out north and south, then cools and sinks at 30 degrees. These cells are known as the Hadley cells. In between the Hadley and Polar cells are the Ferrel cellsat 30 to 60o. The Polar cells are where air rises at about 60 degrees and circulates near the poles.

42. Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar Cells Hadley cells start as air heated near the equator rises and spreads out north and south. After cooling in the upper atmosphere, the air sinks back to Earth’s surface around 30 degrees. Surface air from the subtropical regions return towards the equator to replace the rising air. Characteristics of Hadley cells: Equatorial High humidity High clouds and heavy rains Average temperature 90 degrees at sea level and there is no winter. Temperature variation from day to night is greater than from season to season Biomes formed by Hadley cells: 1. 2. 3. 4. Characteristics of Hadley cells: Subtropical Low humidity Little cloud formation Little rainfall Warm hot summers and mild winters

43. Ferrel cells develop between 30 and 60 degrees north and south latitudes. The area is governed by both tropical and polar air masses. Characteristics of Ferrel cells: Defined seasons are the rule Strong annual cycles of temperature and precipitation Seasonal fluctuation of temperature is greater than within the 24 hour cycle The mid latitudes have distinct winters Biomes formed by Ferrel cells: 1. 2. 3. 4.

44. Polar cells originate as icy cold, dry, dense air descends to the ground and meets with warm air from the mid-latitudes. The air returns to the poles and then sinks. Characteristics of polar cells: Low temperatures and severe winters Small amounts of precipitation that falls in the summer (sinking air suppresses precipitation). Polar regions are deserts (deserts are defined by moisture, not temperature) Very little water because it is tied up as ice. The annual fluctuation of temperature is greater than within the 24 hour cycle Biomes formed by polar cells: 1. 2.

45. The Seasons Factors that affect the amount of solar energy at the surface of Earth include the Earth’s rotation (every 24 hours), Earth’s revolution around the sun (year), tilt of Earth’s axis (23.5o), and atmospheric conditions. Summer (the period of greatest solar radiation) occurs in the Northern Hemisphere when it is tilted toward the sun. The sun rises higher in the sky, stays out longer and the rays of the sun strike more directly. Winter occurs when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun. Opposite for the Southern Hemisphere.

46. Seasons Change In the Northern Hemisphere, spring begins on the vernal equinox on or about March 21st, when daylight length is the same everywhere in the world The summer solstice, which happens on June 21 or 22 each year, has the longest daylight time. It's also the first day of summer. In the Northern Hemisphere, autumn begins on the autumnal equinox on or about September 21st, when daylight length is the same everywhere in the world, again. The winter solstice, on December 21 or 22, has the shortest daylight time, and officially kicks off winter. Northern hemisphere Vernal-spring Summer Winter Autumnal -Fall

47. High and Low Pressure Systems A low pressure system, is usually associated with high winds, warm air, and atmospheric lifting. Because of this, lows normally produce clouds, precipitation (if the temperature falls below the dew point), and other bad weather such as tropical storms and cyclones. In addition, areas prone to low pressure do not have extreme diurnal (day vs. night) nor extreme seasonal temperatures because the clouds present over such areas reflect incoming solar radiation back into the atmosphere so they cannot warm as much during the day (or in the summer) and at night they act as a blanket, trapping heat below. Conversely, a high pressure system, are normally caused by a phenomenon called subsidence, meaning that as the air in the high cools it becomes denser and moves toward the ground. High pressure systems are usually associated with clear skies and calm weather. Unlike areas of low pressure, the absence of clouds means that areas prone to high pressure experience extremes in diurnal and seasonal temperatures since there are no clouds to block incoming solar radiation or trap outgoing radiation at night. Thus such areas have higher high temperatures and lower lows.

48. Cyclones Cyclones are giant, rotating storms called hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Pacific You never hear about hurricanes hitting Alaska. That's because hurricanes develop in warm, tropical regions where the water is at least 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27 degrees Celsius). The storms also require moist air and converging equatorial winds. Most Atlantic hurricanes begin off the west coast of Africa, starting as thunderstorms that move out over the warm, tropical ocean waters. __________________________________________________________. A hurricane's low-pressure center of relative calm is called the eye. The rotation of a hurricane is a product of the Coriolis effect. As a result, hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere rotate counterclockwise and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Hurricanes often begin their lives as clusters of clouds and thunderstorms called tropical disturbances. Tropical depression: wind speeds of less than 38 mph Tropical storm: wind speeds of 39 to 73 mph Hurricane: wind speeds greater than 74 up to 155 mph

49. Land and Sea Breeze Heat is absorbed and released more slowly by water than by land. This difference creates land and sea breezes. Sea breeze: ___________________ __________________________________________________________. Land breeze: ___________________ _____________________________________________________________. As a result, the world’s oceans and large lakes moderate the weather and climates of nearby lands.

50. Rain Shadow • A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area (away from the wind). The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them. • The incoming warm and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds (winds that blow continuously) towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top. The air, without much moisture left, advances behind the mountains creating a drier side called the "rain shadow". The aptly named Death Valley in the United States, behind both the Pacific Coast Ranges of California and the Sierra Nevada range, is one of the driest places on the planet. Leeward side Windward side