Cluster 4 Anita Woolfolk’s Educational Psychology

1. Cluster 4Anita Woolfolk’s Educational Psychology Learner Differences and Learning Needs “A child miseducated is a child lost.” John F. Kennedy

2. Disadvantages does not tell which methods teachers should use self-fulfilling prophecies may be viewed as permanent stigmas mistaken for explanations emphasize most negative aspect of student Advantages for younger student-may lead to a protective response from society open doors to special programs help professionals communicate findings and information help secure financial assistance Language and LabelingExceptional Students: Students who have abilities or problems so significant that they require special education or other services to reach their full potential use of labeling is controversial

3. Intelligence • General definition: ability(s) to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world. • Early notions • the capacity to learn • total knowledge a persona has acquired • ability to adapt to new situations and environments in general • Today-general consensus that intelligence involves abstract reasoning, problem-solving and decision making • Varying Theories • Spearman (1927)-one factor, g, or general intelligence needed to perform any mental task AND s or specific abilities needed to perform specific tasks • Carroll (1993)- a few broad abilities and at least 70 specific abilities- See figure 9.1, p. 105 • Thurston (1938)-verbal comprehension, memory, reasoning, ability to visualize spatial relationships, numerical ability, word influences and perceptual speed

4. Guilford (1988)- faces of intellect: 180 combinations (6 operations x 5 contents x 6 products)

5. Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) -MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

6. Sternberg (1985, 1990)-Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Table 9.3, p. 108)

7. Measuring Intelligence • Alfred Binet (1904) and associate Simon developed 58 tests foir children 3-13 years for determining mental age. • Mental Age: a score based on average abilities for a certain age group • Intelligence Quotient (IQ): added to Binet’s test after it was brought to the US and revised at Stanford University • Formula of Mental Age Divided by Chronological age x 100 = IQ proved insufficient because of inconsistency in growth of mental age. • Deviation IQ was the solution: score based on statistical comparison of individual’s performance with the average performance of others in that age group. • Average score is 100 • 50% of people score over 100 • 50% of people score under 100 • 68% of people score between 85-115 • IQ scores predict achievement well • IQ and real life? still questionable • Heredity or environment? Nature vs. Nurture….both have value

8. Cognitive/Learning Styles • Cognitive Styles: Modes of perceiving, remembering, thinking, problem solving, decision making and organizing information • Field Dependence: Cognitive style in which patterns are perceived as wholes; orientation toward people. Benefit from well structured, sequential assignments • Field Independence: Cognitive style in which separate parts of a pattern are perceived and analyzed. Can impose structure on a chaotic situation • Impulsive Tempo: Cognitive style of responding quickly but often inaccurately • Self-instruction: Talking yourself through the steps of a task • Reflective Tempo: Cognitive style of responding slowly, carefully, ,and accurately. Need help in focusing on the “meat of the matter” and working steadily to reach a goal • Learning Styles: Characteristic approaches to learning and studying • Learning Preferences: Preferred ways of studying and learning such as using pictures, group work, etc… • Deep Processing Approach: see learning materials or activities as a means for understanding underlying concepts or meanings. • Surface Processing Approach: focus on memorizing the materials, not understanding them

9. Learning Disabilities • General term used to describe a broad group of disorders that may manifest as an imperfect ability to listen, speak, do math, write, read, or reason. • Early diagnosis is important so that the LD student does not develop learned helplessness, that all efforts will lead to failure based on past experiences • Most are of average to above average intelligence • Little agreement on definition • Struggles with learning • NOT ,mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, impaired or brain damaged • Varied symptoms • Demonstrate difficulties in one or two subject areas • Many possess the following characteristics: • Attention problems, hyperactivity, impulsivity • Difficulty organizing and interpreting visual and auditory information • Disorders of thinking, memory, speech and hearing • Difficulty making and keeping friends • Lack effective ways to approach academic tasks

10. Communication Disorders • Speech Impairments • Articulation Disorder-pronunciation difficulties • Stuttering-repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations that lock flow of speech • Voicing Problems-inappropriate pitch, ,quality, loudness or intonation • Language Disorders • Seldom Speak • Rely on gestures Mentally Retarded See Guidelines, p. 124 • Substantial limitations in mental function- Intermittent • Extensive • Profound • Basic Skills- Guidelines, p. 130- Teaching Students with Mild Retardation • Social, academic, vocational, domestic • Transitional Programming- Gradual preparation of exceptional students to move from HS into further education or training, employment, or • community involvement

11. Emotional or Behavioral Disorders6 dimensions • Conduct disorders - aggressive, destructive, disobedient, uncooperative, distractible, disruptive, and persistent • Anxiety-withdrawal disorders-anxious, withdrawn, shy, depressed, and hypersensitive, cry easily, have little confidence, few social skills and few friends • Attentionalproblems/immaturity-short attention span, frequent daydreaming, little initiative, messiness and poor coordination • Motor excess- Restlessness, tension, inability to sit still or stop talking • Socializedaggression-behaviors demonstrated by youth who are reinforced for these behaviors by their culture 9gang members) • Psychotic Behavior- bizare behaviors stemming from fantasies and ideas not related to reality See Guidelines, p. 126-Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems

12. Less Prevalent, More Severe Disorders • Health Impairments • Orthodontic devices- braces, wheelchairs that aid people with physical disabilities • Cerebral Palsy-condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage. Often have secondary handicaps such as hearing impairments, speech problems, and mild mental retardation • Seizure Disorders-Epilepsy-abnormal electrical charges in the brain. • Deaf & Hard of Hearing • Low Vision and Blindness Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders • Hyperactivity: Behavior disorder marked by atypical, excessive restlessness and inattentiveness. • *More boys than girls are labeled *Abused term-overly used • *Problems directing and maintaining attention in learning situations • Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder • Behaviors characterized by • More physically active and inattentive than other children • Difficulty responding appropriately and working steadily toward a goal • May have difficulty in controlling their behaviors

13. Disability: the inability to do something specific such as walk or hear • Handicap: refers to the difficulties that people with disabilities encounter in some situations • The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) • Guarantees a free public education to every child between the4 ages of 3 and 21 regardless of how seriously handicapped toward full inclusion (integrations of all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classrooms) • Regular Education Initiative • Educational movement that advocates giving regular education teachers, not special education teachers, responsibility for teaching mildly, and sometimes moderately, handicapped children • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) • Amendment of PL94-142 that replaced the word handicapped with DISABLED and expanded services for these students. ADA-further changes

14. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) • Legislation prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access local government and communications. • Three key points to the amendment • Least Restrictive Environment • Placement of each child in as normal an educational setting as possible • Individualized Education Program (IEP) • Annually revised program for an exceptional student • Details present achievement level, goals and strategies • Drawn up by parents, teachers, specialists and when possible, student • Protection • Protection of rights of students and their parents

15. Ability Differences and Teaching • Between Class Ability Grouping (tracking) • Grouping according to measured abilities • Research indicates it is good for high achievers but not low ability students-low ability classes receive lower-quality instruction • teachers emphasize lower-level objectives and routine procedures with less academic focus • more management problems leading to increased stress and decreased enthusiasm • Teachers’ negative attitudes may = lower expectations communicated to students • Student self-esteem suffers • Disproportionate number of minority and low socioeconomic students assigned to classes—re-segregation • Limited friendships—only in same ability groups • Assignments to tracks made on basis of IQ-not a good predictor of subject area performance • Non-graded elementary school/Joplin plan • Students grouped by ability in particular subjects, regardless of age or grades

16. Within Class Ability Grouping-Frequently used in elementary schools for reading-System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences