Lesson Overview

1. Lesson Overview 11.2 Applying Mendel’s Principles

2. Probability and Punnett Squares • How can we use _____________ to ______________? • _______________squares use mathematical probability to help predict the genotype and phenotype combinations in genetic crosses.

3. Probability and Punnett Squares • Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he carefully categorized and ________ the offspring. • Whenever he crossed two plants that were hybrid for stem height (__), about _______________of the resulting plants were tall and about _____________were short.

4. Probability and Punnett Squares • Mendel realized that the principles of ______________ could be used to explain the results of his genetic crosses. • _____________________ is the likelihood that a particular event will occur.

5. Probability and Punnett Squares • For example, there are _____ possible outcomes of a coin flip: The coin may land either heads up or tails up. • The chance, or probability, of either outcome is equal. Therefore, the probability that a single coin flip will land heads up is 1 chance in 2. This amounts to ____, or ____ percent.

6. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • If each F1 plant had one tall allele and one short allele (Tt), then ___ of the gametes they produced would carry the short allele (t).

7. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • Because the t allele is recessive, the only way to produce a short (__) plant is for two gametes carrying the t allele to combine.

8. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • Each F2 gamete has a one in two, or ___, chance of carrying the __ allele.

9. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • Roughly ____ _______ of the F2 offspring should be short, and the remaining _____ __________should be tall.

10. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • This predicted ratio—___ dominant to ___ recessive—showed up consistently in Mendel’s experiments.

11. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • For each of his seven crosses, about ____of the plants showed the trait controlled by the _________ allele.

12. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • About ____of the plants showed the trait controlled by the ______________ allele.

13. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • In the F1 cross, both the TT and Tt allele combinations resulted in ____ pea plants. The tt allele combination produced a ____ pea plant.

14. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular gene—TT or tt in this example—are said to be __________.

15. Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes • Organisms that have two different alleles for the same gene—such as Tt—are ______________.

16. Genotype and Phenotype • Every organism has a genetic makeup as well as a set of observable characteristics. • All of the tall pea plants had the same _____________, or physical traits. • They did not, however, have the same, or genetic______________ makeup.

17. Genotype and Phenotype • There are three different genotypes among the F2 plants: __, ___, and ___. • The __________ of an organism is inherited, whereas the ____________ is formed as a result of both the environment and the genotype. • Two organisms may have the same phenotype but different genotypes.

18. Using Punnett Squares • One of the best ways to predict the outcome of a genetic cross is by drawing a simple diagram known as a ______________________. • Punnett squares allow you to predict the ____________ and ____________ combinations in genetic crosses using mathematical probability.

19. How To Make a Punnett Square for a One-Factor Cross • Write the genotypes of the two organisms that will serve as parents in a cross. • In this example we will cross a male and female osprey that are heterozygous for large beaks. They each have genotypes of ____. • Parental genotypes: ___________

20. How To Make a Punnett Square • 2. Determine what alleles would be found in all of the possible _______ that each parent could produce. • You are applying the _____________________

21. How To Make a Punnett Square • 3. Draw a table with ___ squares. • 4. Enter the genotypes of the __________ produced by both parents on the top (___________) and left sides (_________) of the table.

22. How To Make a Punnett Square • 5. Fill in the table by ____________ the gametes’ genotypes.

23. How To Make a Punnett Square • 6. Determine the ___________________ ratios. • ¼ of the offspring will be ________ • 2/4 of the offspring will be _______ • ¼ of the offspring will be ________

24. How To Make a Punnett Square • 7. Determine the ______________ ratios. • __ of the offspring will have a large beak • __ of the offspring will have a small beak

25. Independent Assortment • How do alleles segregate when more than one gene is involved? • The principle of _______________ ________________states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.

26. Independent Assortment • Mendel wondered if the segregation of one pair of alleles affects another pair. • Mendel performed an experiment that followed __________________as they passed from one generation to the next. • Because it involves two different genes, Mendel’s experiment is known as a _________, or __________, cross. Single-gene crosses are ________________ crosses.

27. The Two-Factor Cross: F1 • Mendel crossed true-breeding plants that produced only round yellow peas with plants that produced wrinkled green peas.

28. The Two-Factor Cross: F1 • The round yellow peas had the genotype ______, which is homozygous dominant.

29. The Two-Factor Cross: F1 • The wrinkled green peas had the genotype ______, which is homozygous recessive.

30. The Two-Factor Cross: F1 • All of the F1 offspring produced round yellow peas. These results showed that the alleles for yellow and round peas are _________ over the alleles for green and wrinkled peas. • The Punnett square shows that the genotype of each F1 offspring was __________, heterozygous for both seed shape and seed color.

31. The Two-Factor Cross: F2 • Mendel then crossed the F1 plants to produce F2 offspring.

32. The Two-Factor Cross: F2 • Mendel observed that 315 of the F2 seeds were round and yellow, while another 32 seeds were wrinkled and green—the two ___________ phenotypes. • But 209 seeds had ___________________ of phenotypes, and therefore combinations of alleles, that were not found in either parent.

33. The Two-Factor Cross: F2 • The alleles for seed shape segregated ________________of those for seed color. • Genes that segregate independently—such as the genes for seed shape and seed color in pea _____________ ______________ each other’s inheritance.

34. The Two-Factor Cross: F2 • Mendel’s experimental results were very close to the __________ratio that the Punnett square shown predicts. • Mendel had discovered the principle of ____________ _________. The principle of independent assortment states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during gamete formation.

35. A Summary of Mendel’s Principles • What did Mendel contribute to our understanding of genetics? • Mendel’s principles of __________, observed through patterns of ______________, form the basis of modern genetics.

36. A Summary of Mendel’s Principles • The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by individual units called _________, which are passed from parents to offspring.

37. A Summary of Mendel’s Principles • Where two or more forms (________) of the gene for a single trait exist, some forms of the gene may be ___________ and others may be ______________.

38. A Summary of Mendel’s Principles • In most sexually reproducing organisms, each adult has ______ copies of each gene—one from each parent. These genes _______________ from each other when gametes are formed.