CS4710

1. CS4710 Algorithms

2. What is an Algorithm? • An algorithm is a procedure to perform some task. • General - applicable in a variety of situations • Step-by-step - each step must be clear and concise • Finite - must perform task in a finite amount of time • Note: Is not the same as an actual implementation

3. Common algorithmic categories • Recursion • Divide and conquer • Dynamic programming • Greedy

4. Recursion • Definition: • An algorithm defined in terms of itself is said to use recursion or be recursive. • Examples • Factorial1! = 1 n! = n x (n-1)!, n > 1 • Fibonacci sequencef(1) = 1f(2) = 1f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)

5. Recursion • Recursion is natural for some problems • Many solutions can be expressed easily using recursion • Lead often to very elegant solutions • Extremely useful when processing a data structure that is recursive • Warning! • Can be very costly when implemented! • Calling a function entails overhead • Overhead can be high when function calls are numerous (stack overflow) • Some software is smart enough to optimize recursive code into equivalent iterative (low overhead) code

6. Recursive factorial algorithm (written in pseudo code) factorial(n) if n=1 return 1 else return n * factorial(n-1)

7. Recursive factorial code # a recursive factorial routine in Python def fact(n): if n == 1: return 1 else: return n * fact(n - 1)

8. Recursive factorial code # a recursive factorial routine in Perl sub factorial_recursive { my ($n) = shift; return 1 if $n = 1; return $n * factorial_recursive($n – 1); }

9. Non-recursive factorial code # an iterative factorial routine in Perl sub factorial_iterative { my ($n) = shift; my ($answer, $i) = (1, 2); for ( ; $i <= $n; $i++) { $answer *= $i; } return $answer); }

10. Divide and conquer • Secrets of this technique: • Top-down technique • Divide the problem into independent smaller problems • Solve smaller problems • Combine smaller results into larger result thereby “conquering” the original problem. • Examples • Mergesort • Quicksort

11. Dynamic programming • Qualities of this technique: • Useful when dividing the problem into parts creates interdependent sub-problems • Bottom-up approach • Cache intermediate results • Prevents recalculation • May employ “memo-izing” • May “dynamically” figure out how calculation will proceed based on the data • Examples • Matrix chain product • Floyd’s all-pairs shortest paths problem

12. Matrix chain product • Want to multiply matrices A x B x C x D x E • We could parenthesize many ways1. (A x (B x (C x (D x E))))2. ((((A x B) x C) x D) x E)3. … • Each different way presents different number of multiplies! • How can we decide on a wise approach?

13. Dynamic programming applied to matrix chain product • Original matrix chain product A x B x C x D x E (ABCDE for short) • Calculate in advance the cost (multiplies)AB, BC, CD, DE • Use those to find the cheapest way to formABC, BCD, CDE • From that derive best way to formABCDE

14. Greedy algorithms • Qualities of this technique: • Naïve approach • Little to no look ahead • Fast to code and run • Often gives sub-optimal results • For some problems, may be optimal • Examples where optimal • MST of a graph

15. Data structures do matter • Although algorithms are meant to be general, • One must choose wisely the representation for data, and/or • Pay close attention to the data structure already employed, and/or • Occasionally transfer the data to another data structure for better processing. • Algorithms and data structures go hand in hand • The steps of your algorithm… • What your chosen data structure allows easily…

16. Some of python’s built-in types and data structures • type int - integers • type float - floating point numbers • type str - Strings or text • python sequence or list - (similar to an array in other languages, but more powerful than a true array) • python dictionary - basically a hash table where each data value has an associated key used for lookup.

17. Some of Perl’s built-in data structures • $scalar • number (integer or float) • string (sequence of characters) • reference (“pointer” to another data structure) • object (data structure that is created from a class) • @array (a sequence of scalars indexed by integers) • %hash (collection of scalars selected by strings (keys))

18. Perl (and python) arrays are powerful! • Can dynamically grow and shrink (not normal array behavior) • Need a queue? (FIFO) • Can use an array • Add data with push operator (enqueue) • Remove using shiftoperator (dequeue) • Need a stack? (LIFO) • Can use an array • Push data with pushoperator (push) • Pop data using pop operator (pop)

19. Advanced data structures • Linked lists • Circular linked lists • Doubly linked lists • Binary search trees • Graphs • Heaps • Binary heaps • Hash tables

20. Linked list • Consists of small node structures • Each node • Stores one data item (data field) • Stores a reference to next node (next field) • Allows non-contiguous storage of data • Is much like a magazine article

21. Linked list • Benefits • Can insert more data (more nodes) in middle of list efficiently • Can remove data from middle efficiently • Word processors typically store text using linked lists • Allows for very fast cutting and pasting. • Cons • Takes up more space (for the references) • True array would take up less space

22. Graphs • Many representations • Adjacency lists • Adjacency matrix • Must consider representation when processing • Some graphs are weighted, others not • Some are directed, others have implied bi-direction

23. Graphs • Graph Searches • Depth-first search • Uses stack • Yields a path • Exhaustive • Breadth-first search • Uses a queue • Yields a shortest path • Exhaustive

24. Graphs • Greedy algorithms for graphs • Minimum spanning tree (MST) • Prim’s algorithm • Grow an MST from a single node • Optimal solution • Kruskal’s algorithm • Keep picking cheap edges • Optional solution