Education Policy

1. Education Policy GV280 Week 24 12 March 2012

2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rg5NvKpJfKE

3. 1988-2001: Education reform in the UK and the US UK: Education Reform Act 1988 US: No Child Left Behind 2001 • How did these measures pass? • What were the constraints on education reform in each country?

4. Education issues • What is it for? • Who should provide it? • Who should control it? • What limits should be placed on it? • Should different types of people receive different types of education?

5. Why educate?(I) Training for the workforce • No moral imperative for providing education ... • ... but a compelling economic case for doing so • Implies education to differing levels • State’s role in education less important ... • ... so private education has a clear role to play

6. Why educate?(II) Delivery of a basic human right • Concept of natural rights • If education is a natural right, everyone is entitled to receive it • Implies that everyone should be educated to the same level • Equality of opportunity • State must provide education • Private education an anomaly

7. How much education? • Training vs natural right: • Too much education? • How much is enough? • Primary? • Secondary? • Tertiary? • Tuition fees – ‘education is a right, not a privilege’

8. Different types of education? • Technical vs academic • Technical colleges vs secondary modern (and grammar schools) • Vocational qualifications • Popular in times of economic downturn • Types: • Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (TVEI) (1980s) • General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) (1990s) • Diplomas (2000s)

9. Local vs national responsibility (I) UK: • ‘A national system, locally administered’ • 1944 Education Act – main role in provision of education devolved to local authorities • In practice, schools mainly autonomous • Thatcher government takes control in 1980s

10. Local vs national responsibility (II) US: • Very limited role for federal government until 1950s • Department of Education not established until 1979 • Gradual expansion of federal influence over subsequent years

11. The UK: milestones in educationsince the war • 1944 Education Act • Creates new primary/secondary structure • Local authorities made responsible for education • Tripartite education system • Grammar • Technical • Secondary modern • 1960s: Transition to comprehensive education • 1988 Education Reform Act

12. Education Reform Act 1988 • Introduction of market principles to education • Parental choice • Local authorities marginalized • ‘Opt-out’ (grant maintained) schools & City Technology Colleges [later superseded by Labour’s Academies] • Local Management of Schools (LMS) • Per capita distribution of funds • Step on the road to privatization • National curriculum • Centralized control; Secretary of State’s augmented power • But not wanted by original drafters of the Act

13. The US: milestones in educationsince the war • 1954: Brown vs Board of Education • Introduces the concept of civil rights to schools! • More broadly encourages concept of education as a general right • 1965: Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) • Establishes framework for US education • Promotes equality of educational provision • Prohibits centralization of curriculum ... • ... and role of federal government still highly circumscribed • 1994: Clinton’s ‘Goals 2000’ • Establishes a set of objectives to be achieved by year 2000, e.g. 90 per cent high school completion rate • 2001: No Child Left Behind

14. No Child Left Behind Act, 2001 • George W. Bush’s ‘compassionate conservatism’ • Distancing Bush from congressional Republicans’ ‘small state’ principles • Competing with Democrats for moral high ground • Represents frustration at the pace of reform under ‘Goals 2000’ • Bi-partisan bill • Compromise with Democrats on key points

15. NCLB: the trade-offs • Voucher scheme • In schools that failed to make adequate progress, parents could take the funds allocated to a student and use them to gain entry to a public or private school • A holy grail for the Republican right • Achievable, given Republican control of Congress and the presidency? • Nevertheless, voucher element in NCLB was voted down in Congress – with 68 House Republicans voting against it • Greater federal influence over education moderated by additional autonomy for states • Central demands balanced by greater freedom in the use of federal funds

16. NCLB provisions • Imposed testing system based on new academic standards criteria • Annual testing for grades 3-8 • English proficiency tests for non-native English speakers • ‘Highly qualified teacher’ for core subjects • Accountability and support system for schools that fail • Addresses the shortcomings of Goals 2000 • Extended support for charter schools

17. Charter schools • Originated in Minnesota, 1992 • Free from local authority control • Often operate in poorer communities • Open to private funding • Use innovative teaching and learning methods to drive up standards ... • ... but subject to a number of criticisms: • Frequently raise standards by excluding underperforming students • Permit profit-seeking investors to enter education market • Reject special needs/non-native English speaking students • Ignore unions/teachers’ employment rights

18. Michael Gove’s free schools • Extends existing ‘academy’ status set up by Labour • Enables parents, businesses and charities to establish schools outside control of local authorities • Funded directly by central government • Academy status now available to every secondary school

19. Education as a political issue:how do you achieve reform? • Questions over quality & standards • ‘Reasonableness’ of proposals • But ... Keith Joseph & voucher scheme • Interests vs politicians • Public opinion & the climb up the agenda

20. Most important problem – educationProportion describing education as the most important problem facing the US, 1970-2001Source: Gallup

21. Most important issue – educationProportion describing education as the most important issue facing the UK, 1974-2011Source: Ipsos-Mori

22. Why radical education policies were possible in the US - NCLB • Greater saliency of issue • Cross-party congressional agreement • Significant compromises • Incremental expansion of federal role • Presidential mandate • Republican president could go further than Democrat president? • Vic Klatt: ‘The only way that a bill like NCLB could have passed was if a Republican president supported it.’ • Interest groups emasculated (politicians more interested in listening to voters than to interest groups) • Series of attempted reforms failed until issue saliency rose

23. Why radical education policies were possible in the UK – 1988 Act • Elective dictatorship • No need for consensus building • Government can ride roughshod over unions/interest groups • Issue saliency apparently irrelevant

24. US vs UK • US – change incremental, moderate, requires consensus • UK – change simply requires the government’s will to implement it

25. Education policy – success or failure? • Some success in US in attaining NCLB targets • Charter schools – some better, some worse than normal public schools • Academies & free schools – overall improvement in standards • But emphasis on vocational qualifications may account for much of improvement • Selection element • Plus may impact on other local schools • And most schools are more concerned about financial benefits than academic ones http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-12712079

26. Accountability and marketization – the downside • ‘Unfunded mandates’ • Not enough central funds to allow schools in poorer areas to meet requirements • ‘Failing’ status tends to lead to downward spiral • Hard to recruit good teachers to a failing school • ‘Teaching to the test’ • Moving the goalposts • Lack of national control (in the US) leave states free to manipulate testing criteria • Success – or else! • Evidence of increasing numbers of expulsions accompanying improved test results