CHAPTER 7 (Thinking, Language, & Intelligence)

1. CHAPTER 7 (Thinking, Language, & Intelligence) Michael L. Farris Psychology 101

2. Cognition (p. 224) • The process of thinking or mentally processing information (images, concepts, words, rules, and symbols). • At its most basic, thinking is an internal representation (mental expression) of a problem or situation. (Picture a chess player who mentally tries out several moves before actually touching a chess piece.) • Cognitive psychology is the study of thinking, knowing, understanding, problem solving, creativity, and information processing.

3. Semantics (p. 233) • The study of meanings in language. It is here that the link between language and thought becomes most evident. Semantics affect thinking when the words we choose alter underlying meanings: Has one country’s army “invaded” another? Or “effected a protective incursion”? Is the city reservoir “half full” or “half empty”? Would you rather eat “prime beef” or “dead cow”?

4. Intelligence (p. 238-250) • An overall capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. • Mental age (p. 238): The average mental ability people display at a given age. For example, at age 8 or 9, very few children can define the word connection. At age 10, 10% can. At age 13, 60% can. In other words, the ability to define connection indicates mental ability equal to that of an average 13 year old and gives a mental age of 13 (on this single item). • To measure mental abilities, scientists Binet and Simon developed an intelligence test with tasks scaled according to the age at which a child should be able to perform them successfully. The age at which the child’s performance topped off was considered the child’s mental age. • Table 10.5 from page 355 of the Coon book gives a sample of items from the Stanford-Binet (a widely used individual test of intelligence, or “I.Q.”) that persons of average intelligence (90-110) can answer at various ages.

5. Intelligence Quotient Chronological Age: A person’s age in years. When we relate mental age to actual (chronological) age, we get an IQ, or intelligence quotient. Intelligence Quotient (IQ): An index of intelligence defined as a person’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age and multiplied by 100. MA/CA times 100=IQ. This is what is measured by tests like the Stanford-Binet. IQ=100 when Mental Age = Chronological Age. An IQ score of 100 is therefore defined as average intelligence. Remember, though, there is always a range. Nevid, Pgs.238-239.

6. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) (p. 357) • An adult intelligence test that rates both verbal and performance intelligence. Verbal and non-verbal abilities can be broken down further, to reveal various cognitive strengths and weaknesses. The abilities measured by the Wechsler tests and some sample test items are listed in Coon, table 10.6 on page 357. • It is important to realize that intelligence tests may not be equally valid for all groups. As one psychologist says, “If the Wechsler and Binet scales were translated into Spanish, Swahili, and Chinese and given to every 10 year old in Latin America, East Africa, or China, the majority would obtain IQ scores in the mentally retarded range.” • Certainly we cannot believe that children of different cultures are all retarded. The fault must lie in the test. Cultural values, traditions, and experiences can greatly affect performance on tests designed for Western cultures. • To avoid this problem, some psychologists have tried to develop culture-fair tests, designed to minimize the importance of skills and knowledge that may be more common in some cultures than in others. (For a sample of culture fair items, see figure 10.20 on Coon, page 358).

7. Average Intelligence Normal Curve (Coon, p. 357; Nevid, pgs. 238-239) A bell shaped curve characterized by a large number of scores in a middle area, tapering to a very few extremely high and low scores. (This can be demonstrated with class grades, and with IQ scores.)

8. Mental Retardation (p. 238, 243-244) • Mental retardation (Coon, p. 361): The presence of a developmental disability, a formal IQ score below 70, or a significant impairment of adaptive behavior (adaptive behaviors are basic skills and actions considered necessary for self-care and for dealing successfully with the environment). Nevid defines it as a generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual and social skills. • Causes of retardation: About 50% of all cases of mental retardation are organic, or related to physical disorders. • Typical problems include birth injuries (such as a lack of oxygen) and fetal damage (from disease, infection, or the mother’s abuse of drugs or alcohol). Metabolic disorders also cause retardation. These are problems with the rate of energy production and use in the body. • Some forms of retardation are linked to genetic abnormalities, including missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes.

9. Levels of Mental Retardation and Capabilities of School-Age Children

10. Inductive vs. Deductive Thought (Coon, p. 363) • Inductive thought : Thinking in which a general rule or principle is inferred from a series of specific examples; for instance, inferring the laws of gravity by observing many falling objects. *fromsmall to BIG* • Deductive thought :Thought that applies a general set of rules to specific situations; for example, using the laws of gravity to predict the behavior of a single falling object. *FROM BIG to small*

11. Brainstorming • A method of creative thinking that separates the production and evaluation of ideas. The essence of brainstorming is that producing and evaluating ideas are kept separate. In group problem solving, each person is encouraged to produce as many ideas as possible without fear of criticism. This encourages divergent thinking (and may help you come up with ideas and solutions you never thought of before). Some of the most successful brainstorming takes place on computer networks, where each person’s fears of being evaluated are minimized. • Only at the end of a brainstorming session are ideas reconsidered and evaluated. As ideas are freely generated, an interesting cross-stimulation effect takes place in which one participant’s ideas trigger ideas from others. Nevid, page 252.

12. Brainstorming The basic rules for successful brainstorming are: • 1. Criticism of ideas is absolutely barred. Defer evaluation until later in the session. • 2. Modification or combination with other ideas is encouraged. Don’t worry about giving credit for ideas or keeping them neat. Mix them up! • 3. Quantity of ideas is sought. In the early stages of brainstorming, quantity is more important than quality. Try to generate lots of ideas. • 4. Unusual, remote, or wild ideas are sought. Let your imagination run amok! • 5. Record ideas as they occur. • 6. Elaborate or improve on the most promising ideas.