Molecular Exercise Physiology Resistance training Presentation 6 Henning Wackerhage

1. Molecular Exercise PhysiologyResistance trainingPresentation 6Henning Wackerhage

2. Learning outcomes • At the end of this presentation you should be able to: • Describe resistance training methods and other interventions that achieve a skeletal muscle hypertrophy. • Describe the changes in neuromuscular activation and muscle size that occur in response to resistance training.

3. Adaptation to resistance trainingPart 1Basics

4. What is strength? Strength can be defined as the ability of the neuromuscular system to produce force. Strength can occur in different situations: 1) Isometric: muscle produces tension but length is unchanged. 2) Concentric: muscle produces tension and shortens. 3) Eccentric: muscle produces tension and lengthens. 4) Plyometric: concentric action immediately preceded by an eccentric action.

5. The relevance of the two sections of the neuromusular system for force production Strength (force production) depends on Neuromuscular activation: a) The firing rates of the a motor neurones involved; b) The number of a motor neurones that innervate a muscle; c) The co-ordination of the movement (innervation of agonist versus antagonist, technique). Force production by innervated muscle fibres: a) Fibre size (hypertrophy); b) Fibre phenotype (type I, IIa, IIb/x). Central nervous system amotor neurones muscle fibres

6. Strength response to standard resistance training Strength increases due to strength training result from increased neural activation (early response) and fibre hypertrophy (delayed response) (Sale et al. 1988). Strength Hypertrophy Strength Neural activation Time

7. Resistance trainingPart 2Training for hypertrophy

8. Resistance training Resistance training research results: Increases in the cross-sectional area of muscle fibers range from 20% to 45% in most training studies (Staron et al., 1991). Type II (fast) muscle fibres show greater increases in size compared to type I (slow) fibres (Hather et al. 1991) . More than 16 workouts are needed to produce significant muscle fibre hypertrophy (Staron et al., 1994). Increases in strength occur near the velocity of training (e.g. slow-speed training increases strength at slow speeds) (Behm & Sale, 1993) .

9. Resistance training for hypertrophy Hypertrophy training: Do it if you can afford a high body mass and if high absolute strength is important. Yes: Throwers, super heavyweight weightlifters, body builders. No or limited amount: high jumpers, weight class athletes.

10. Resistance training for hypertrophy • Hypertrophy training parameters: • Load 70-80% • Number of repetitions per set: 8-12 is usually recommended • Number of Sets: 4-6 (8) • Rest intervals: 3-5 minutes • Speed of execution: medium • Variations: • Split routine (e.g. arms, legs and abdominals on Monday, Wednesday and Friday; chest, shoulders and back on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays). • Single or multiple sets per exercise. • Training with varying weights and repetitions per exercise: low-to-high or high-to-low weights, pyramid training.

11. Net protein synthesis and hypertrophy Skeletal muscle hypertrophy requires a net protein synthesis. However, it is not sufficient just to measure protein synthesis because: Net protein synthesis = protein synthesis – protein breakdown. Both protein synthesis and protein breakdown increase in response to resistance training.

12. Lower effect in trained subjects Protein synthesis Protein breakdown The figures show that untrained (UT) subjects have a higher protein synthesis and protein breakdown after resistance exercise compared to trained subjects (T). This confirms that untrained subjects respond more to resistance training than trained subjects who are closer to maximal hypertrophy (Phillips et al. 1999).

13. Lower effect in trained subjects Total Both trained and untrained subjects suffer a net protein breakdown at rest and during exercise in a fasted state (Phillips et al. 1999). The amino acid concentration needs to be sufficiently high to yield a net protein synthesis. In addition, growth factors like insulin, androgens and IGF-1 will cause a net protein synthesis.

14. Feeding is necessary for net protein synthesis These data show that a resistance training with no feeding (placebo, PLA) causes a net protein breakdown while resistance training with ingestion of 40 g of mixed amino acids (MAA) and 40 g of essential amino acids (EAA) causes net protein synthesis (Tipton et al. 1999). Important: A normal meal would be sufficient for protein synthesis. Protein drinks are probably not necessary.

15. Feed directly after resistance exercise! Cross-sectional area of quadriceps femoris Two groups of old subjects (70-80 years) performed a period of endurance training. Both groups received a gel containing 10 g protein (from skimmed milk and soybean), 7 g carbohydrate and 3.3 g lipid either directly after exercise (P0) or 2 h after exercise (P2). Only ingestion directly after exercise caused hypertrophy (Esmarck et al. 2001).

16. Task Assume you would like to become a body builder. Outline a 6 months training programme for maximal hypertrophy.

17. Resistance trainingPart 3Neuromuscular activation

18. Neuromuscular activation The force generated during a movement depends on the neuromuscular activation of the muscles involved and on the force produced by the skeletal muscle fibres innervated. Neuromuscular activation includes: a) The firing rates of the a motor neurones involved. b) The number of a motor neurones that innervate a muscle. c) The co-ordination of the muscle (innervation of agonist versus antagonist, technique).

19. Innervation of a motor neurones The firing of a motor neurones depends on the input of higher centres (e.g. motor cortex) and reflex inputs (see figure). If there is sufficient excitatory input, then the threshold is reached, the a motor neurone fires, muscle fibres contract and a force is generated. Other peripheral sensory receptors Ib Reflex inputs II Higher motor centres Ia a motor neurone Muscle fibres Modified after Leonard (1998)

20. Three types of motor units • Fast fatiguing: • very high tension • fast fatiguing • Large a motor neurone, type IIb/x fibres • Fatigue resistant: • high tension • slow fatiguing • Intermediate size a motor neurone, type IIa fibres • Slow: • low tension • fatigue resistant • Small a motor neurone, type I fibres Burke et al. (1973)

21. Task Explain the difference between myosin heavy chain isoforms, fibre types and motor units.

22. Three types of motor units A motor unit is an a motor neurone and the muscle fibres innervated by it. Three types of motor units can be distinguished: slow (S), fatigue resistant (FR), fast fatiguing (FF). The a motor neurones of the slow motor units are the smallest and have a low threshold while the a motor neurones in fast fatiguing motor units are large and have a high threshold. Fast fatiguing motor unit Fatigue resistant motor unit Slow motor unit Type I fibres Type IIa fibres Type IIb/x fibres

23. Henneman Size Principle Stimulation voltage The first, large spike seen on the left of each trace is a stimulation artefact. The smaller spikes to the right originate from firing a motor neurones. The larger the a motor neurone, the larger the spike. Firing slow motor units correspond to small spikes, interme-diate to intermediate spikes and fast fatiguing to large spikes. Only slow motor units fire (small spikes) Fast fatiguing and intermediate motor units (large spikes) fire additionally only after intense stimulation Electrical stimulation artefact Henneman (1957)

24. Henneman Size Principle The results shown on the previous slide allow the following conclusion: The susceptibility of a motor neuron to discharge is a function of its size. Smaller a motor neurons (part of slow motor units) have a lower threshold than larger ones (part of fatigue resistant or fast fatiguing motor units).

25. Henneman size principle: conclusion Slow motor units are easily activated and “trained” by any training that activates the muscle. Intense stimulation (near maximal resistance training, sprinting, jumping) is required to additionally innervate and thus train fatigue resistant and fast fatiguing motor units.

26. How to specifically train neuromuscular activation? Choose near maximal weights that allow you to perform 1-6 repetitions. Mainly olympic lifts (clean, snatch, jerk) with dumbbells or barbells esp. for advanced athletes. Alternatively, work with lower or no weights and near maximum velocity (e.g. plyometric training, sprints, jumps, throws).

27. Neuromuscular activation training U t Physiological basis: Normal firing rates of a motor neurones range from 10 to 60 action potentials s-1. Maximum forces are achieved with firing rates around 50 s-1. Maximal firing rates during ballistic exercises in trained subjects are higher than 100 s-1. However, firing rates higher than 50 s-1 speed up the force increase at the beginning of a contraction.

28. Neuromuscular activation training Explosive, ballistic strength training increases maximal strength but especially develops a quicker force development. Heavy resistance strength training develops especially a higher, maximal force (Häkkinen & Komi 1985; RFD rate of force development).

29. Task What is plyometric training? Why might it be useful to develop neuromuscular activation?

30. The End