The Art of Persuasion: Intro to Rhetorical Analysis

1. The Art of Persuasion:Intro to Rhetorical Analysis

2. What is Rhetoric? It’s not just a dream that it is The Art of Persuasion

3. What is Rhetorical Analysis? •     While the term "rhetorical analysis" is, at first, rather intimidating for many people, it is easily understood (at least at its most basic) when broken down and defined. • In rhetorical analysis, then, we examine how authors attempt to persuade their audiences by looking at the various components that make up the art of persuasion.

4. Everything’s an argument! • Every text—oral, written, or visual—is, in some sense rhetorical; each one is a strategic presentation of particular ideas. • Human beings both produce and receive such texts; as such, we must understand what they mean. Typically, this is done implicitly; we understand the meaning of a text without thinking about how or why it works the way it does. • Rhetorical analysis asks us precisely that: to understand how texts create meaning, how they construct knowledge, and how they make us take action. • Rhetorical analysis, then, helps us to understand explicitly (rather than simply implicitly, as most of us do) how the language of a text works and how we can use such language to work for us.

5. Rhetorical Analysis Using the Joliffe Framework Design

7. Rhetorical Situation: Exigence Problem, incident, or situation causing the writer to write the piece What prompted the writing of this piece? Most likely, the piece would not have been written if it had not been for this.

8. Rhetorical Situation: Audience An audience has either an: • Immediate response • Intermediate response (think about later) So, which type of response does the author want from the audience? In this way, the audience shapes the rhetoric. No audience is a tabula rasa.

9. Rhetorical Situation: Purpose The author considers a purpose of the writing in a sense of consideration for what the audience feels.

10. Appeals

11. Appeals: Logos • An appeal to logic • An attempt to persuade the reader by presenting a logical argument • If, then statements • Syllogistic inferences/conclusions • Deductive reasoning

12. Appeals: Logos The central appeal of anything is that it must be logical. Without logic, nothing that follows is reasonable. You must consider the logos within the author’s writing.

13. Appeals: Ethos • The ethical appeal • An attempt to persuade based on moral grounds • Right vs. Wrong • Good vs. Evil

14. Appeals: Pathos • An appeal to emotion • An attempt to persuade the reader by causing them to respond to the way an issue/topic makes them feel • Can invoke bias or prejudice • Uses non-logical appeals • Informal language

15. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle Writer/ Ethos Audience/ Pathos Context/ Logos

16. What is Tone? • The writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward a subject, character, or audience • Conveyed through the author’s: • Choice of words (diction) • Word order (syntax) • Detail, imagery, and language (figurative language)

17. Tone • You must understand Logos, Ethos, and Pathos to understand the Tone • Logos, Ethos, and Pathos all contribute to determining the Tone • Imagery, Diction, Syntax and Figurative Language all contribute to the tone as well • If you don’t recognize the Tone of the piece, you miss everything that follows • Look for shifts in tone • What does the tone shift from and to? • What initiates or causes the tone shift? • Tone shift is often critical to understanding the meaning of the text.

19. Surface Features

20. Surface Features: Diction • What is diction? • Diction is word choice intended to convey a certain effect • To communicate ideas and impressions • To evoke emotions • To convey your views of truth to the reader • Consider why this particular word instead all the other possible words • Look for patterns of diction (scientific, theological, sexual, nautical, etc.)

21. Surface Features: Syntax • What is Syntax? • The arrangement and order of words in a sentence

22. Surface Features: Syntax • Sentence Structure • Short sentences are often emphatic, passionate, or flippant • Longer sentences often suggest the writer’s thoughtful response • Arrangement of Ideas in a Sentence • Are they set out in a particular way for a purpose? • Which idea is subordinate to the other within the sentence? • Arrangement of Ideas in a Paragraph • Is there evidence of any pattern or structure? • Parallelism – sentences or clauses that repeat the same grammatical structure (eg “I came. I saw. I conquered.”) • Anaphora – repetition of phrases or clauses (eg “I have a dream).

23. Surface Features: Imagery & Figurative Language • Imagery: the use of language to appeal to the senses • Figurative Language: any non-literal use of language • Simile / Metaphor • Allusion • Alliteration • Hyperbole • Oxymoron • Personification • Verbal Irony • Etc.

24. Surface Features • Consider how surface features contribute to the message • Syntactical elements are usually there for either parallelism or difference • All of those multisyllabic terms are there to show how things in the piece are the same or different (antithesis, parallelism, etc.) • Figurative language is metaphorical; therefore, it makes abstract things concrete

25. Organization/Structure/Form • Patterns of Structure: • Cause and Effect • Compare & Contrast (block or point-by-point) • Process • Classification • Extended Definition • Refutation • Order of Importance • Chronological • Problem-Solution

26. Always work chronologically when analyzing a piece of literature. • You cannot identify shifts in tone and other elements if you don’t look at it chronologically.

27. Performing the Analsyis

28. The Point of the Analysis There are two key functions of a Rhetorical Analysis: 1. To Identify WHAT the Rhetor is trying to accomplish -This includes understanding of the Rhetorical Situation 2. To Identify HOW the Rhetor goes about accomplishing it. -This includes understanding of how the Appeals, Surface Features, and Structure work to accomplish the Purpose of the Speaker for his/her particular Audience as a response to that particular Exigence

29. The Point of the Analysis • In other words, you must answer these questions: i. HOW do the rhetorical strategies help the author achieve his/her purpose? ii. WHY does the author chose those strategies for that particular audience and for that particular occasion?

30. The Introduction • The introductory paragraph to an analysis essay is usually brief. However, it must contain some essential information. • FORMAT Sentence 1. Speaker, Occasion, and Subject: (Writer’s credentials), (writer’s first and last name), in his/her (type of text), (title of text), (strong verb – see list at end of this section) (writer’s subject). Sentence 2. Purpose: (Writer’s last name)’s purpose is to (what the writer does in the text). Sentence 3. Audience: He/she adopts a[n] (adjective describing the attitude/feeling conveyed by the writer) tone in order to (verb phrase describing what the writer wants readers to do/think) in his/her (intended audience).

31. The Introduction • EXAMPLE: • Novelist, Amy Tan, in her narrative essay, “Fish Cheeks,” recounts an embarrassing Christmas Eve dinner when she was 14 years old. Tan’s purpose is to convey the idea that, at fourteen, she wasn’t able to recognize the love her mother had for her or the sacrifices she made. She adopts a sentimental tone in order to appeal to similar feelings and experiences in her adult readers.

32. The Body • This is the analysis part! This is where you include a detailed explanation of strategies used by the writer. • When writing an analysis, it is crucial that you work chronologically through the text. This means that you start at the beginning of the text and work your way through it by discussing what the writer is saying and the effectiveness of the strategies he/she is using at the beginning, middle, and end of the text. • Sometimes this means that you will discuss each paragraph (one at a time), and sometimes this means that you will divide the text into sections and discuss the beginning, middle, and end of the text. Whether you discuss each paragraph or each section depends on the length and organization of the text itself.

33. The Body • To help you move chronologically through the text, there are transition words you can use. A few of them are listed below: • begins • opens • closes • contrasts • Shifts to • juxtaposes • ends • moves to

34. The Body • Every analysis paragraph MUST: • Identify the part of the text you are analyzing by using transition words and strong verbs to explain what is being said. • Identify the strongest rhetorical strategies used in that particular section. This includes incorporating specific text examples (exact words from the text – see last page of this section for proper format) into your own words. Do NOT try to discuss every strategy the writer uses; pick the strongest! • Clearly and specifically explain how the rhetorical strategies are used to help the writer achieve his purpose and reach his audience. • The above items must be woven together seamlessly into one sophisticated paragraph of the body of your analysis essay.

35. The Body • FORMAT and EXAMPLE [from Pres. Reagan’s speech after the space shuttle Challenger explosion in the 1980s]: • 1. The first sentence identifies which section of the text you are discussing and the main idea of that section. • (Writer’s last name) (transition word) his/her (type of text) by (strong verb) that (main idea of this section of the text). Reagan begins his tribute to the Challenger astronauts by acknowledging that the shuttle accident has appropriately postponed his planned State of the Union address and by expressing the depth of his and his wife’s personal grief.

36. The Body • 2. The second sentence conveys the writer’s support for the main idea by identifying and providing a specific example for one rhetorical strategy used by the writer. [This sentence is repeated if you want to discuss more than one rhetorical strategy.] He appeals to the mournful emotions of the audience by admitting that he and Nancy are “pained to the core” (3), that today is rightfully a “day for mourning and remembering” (2-3), and that the accident is “truly a national loss” (4).

37. The Body • 3. The third sentence explains how the rhetorical strategies you discussed in the previous sentences help the writer achieve his purpose by using an in order to statement. He joins in this time of mourning in order to unify the nation and humbly admit that “we share this pain with all of the people of our country” (4). • 4. The fourth sentence identifies the effect of the writer’s use of these rhetorical strategies on the audience. This outpouring of emotion from the president conveys a calming tone that reassures the Nation that their grief is both understandable and proper.

38. The Conclusion • The conclusion is probably the easiest part. Be brief. In one-two sentences, simply remind your reader of the things you said in the introduction.

39. Strong vs. Weak Verbs To help you move away from summary and toward ANALYSIS, you need to begin to incorporate strong verbs into your writing when discussing the writer’s rhetorical choices. Below is a list of verbs that are considered weak because they imply summary and a list of verbs that are considered strong because they imply analysis. Strive to use the stronger verbs in your essays to help push yourself away from summary and toward analysis: “The writer flatters…” NOT “The writer says…” WEAK VERBS (Summary) says relates goes on to say tells this quote shows explains states shows STRONG VERBS (Analysis) implies trivializes flatters qualifies processes describes suggests denigrates lionizes dismisses analyzes questions compares vilifies praises supports enumerates contrasts emphasizes demonizes establishes admonishes expounds argues defines ridicules minimizes narrates lists warns

41. A History of Rhetoric

42. A Brief History of Rhetoric:Ancient Israel • Rhetorical skills were required and found wanting in biblical figure Moses as mentioned in Torah (c.1313 BCE)[6], where Moses argued with God that he should not be the one to deliver the message to the people by saying "Please, my Lord, I am not a man of words..." (Exodus 4:10). • To this God responded "Is there not Aaron, your brother, the Levite?" (Exodus 4:14). Levites were the priestly tribe of Israelites that were occupied primarily with teaching, at that time, in public, therefore Aaron was expected to be such a "man of words".

43. A Brief History of Rhetoric: The Greeks • The earliest mention of oratorical skill occurs in Homer's Iliad, where heroes like Achilles, Hektor, and Odysseus were honored for their ability to advise and exhort their peers and followers (the Laos or army) in wise and appropriate action. • With the rise of the democratic polis, speaking skill was adapted to the needs of the public and political life of cities in Ancient Greece, much of which revolved around the use of oratory as the medium through which political and judicial decisions were made, and through which philosophical ideas were developed and disseminated. For modern students today, it can be difficult to remember that the wide use and availability of written texts is a phenomenon that was just coming into vogue in Classical Greece. • In Classical times, many of the great thinkers and political leaders performed their works before an audience, usually in the context of a competition or contest for fame, political influence, and cultural capital; in fact, many of them are known only through the texts that their students, followers, or detractors wrote down. As has already been noted, rhetor was the Greek term for orator: A rhetor was a citizen who regularly addressed juries and political assemblies and who was thus understood to have gained some knowledge about public speaking in the process, though in general facility with language was often referred to as logôn techne, "skill with arguments" or "verbal artistry." See, Mogens Herman Hansen The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes (Blackwell, 1991); Josiah Ober Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens (Princeton UP, 1989); Jeffrey Walker, Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity (Oxford UP, 2000). • Rhetoric thus evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orator's arguments. Today the term rhetoric can be used at times to refer only to the form of argumentation, often with the pejorative connotation that rhetoric is a means of obscuring the truth. Classical philosophers believed quite the contrary: the skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the discovery of truths, because it provided the means of ordering and clarifying arguments.

44. A Brief History of Rhetoric:The Sophists • Organized thought about public speaking began in ancient Greece.[citation needed] Possibly, the first study about the power of language may be attributed to the philosopher Empedocles (d. ca. 444 BC), whose theories on human knowledge would provide a basis for many future rhetoricians. The first written manual is attributed to Corax and his pupil Tisias. Their work, as well as that of many of the early rhetoricians, grew out of the courts of law; Tisias, for example, is believed to have written judicial speeches that others delivered in the courts. • Teaching in oratory was popularized in the 5th century BC by itinerant teachers known as sophists, the best known of whom were Protagoras (c.481-420 BC), Gorgias (c.483-376 BC), and Isocrates (436-338 BC). • The Sophists were a disparate group who travelled from city to city making public displays to attract students who were then charged a fee for their education. Their central focus was on logos or what we might broadly refer to as discourse, its functions and powers. They defined parts of speech, analyzed poetry, parsed close synonyms, invented argumentation strategies, and debated the nature of reality • The word "sophistry" developed strong negative connotations in ancient Greece that continue today, but in ancient Greece sophists were nevertheless popular and well-paid professionals, widely respected for their abilities but also widely criticized for their excesses.

45. A Brief History of Rhetoric:Isocrates • Isocrates (436-338 BC), like the sophists, taught public speaking as a means of human improvement, but he worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. • He suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process of self-improvement that relied much more heavily on native talent and desire, constant practice, and the imitation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice in speaking publicly about noble themes and important questions would function to improve the character of both speaker and audience while also offering the best service to a state. • He thus wrote his speeches as "models" for his students to imitate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer or Hesiod. His was the first permanent school in Athens and it is likely that Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were founded in part as a response to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches ("Antidosis" and "Against the Sophists" are most relevant to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory (he was one of the canonical "Ten Attic Orators") and he had a marked influence on Cicero and Quintilian, and through them, on the entire educational system of the west.

46. A Brief History of Rhetoric:Plato • Plato (427-347 BC) famously outlined the differences between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues, but especially the Gorgias and the Phaedrus. Both dialogues are complex and difficult, but in both Plato disputes the Sophistic notion that an art of persuasion, the art of the Sophists which he calls "rhetoric" (after the public speaker or rhêtôr), can exist independent of the art of dialectic. • Plato claims that since Sophists appeal only to what seems likely or probable, rather than to what is true, they are not at all making their students and audiences "better," but simply flattering them with what they want to hear • Plato coined the term "rhetoric" both to denounce what he saw as the false wisdom of the sophists, and to advance his own views on knowledge and method. • Plato attempts to distinguish the rhetoric common to Socratic questioning from Sophistry.

47. A Brief History of Rhetoric:Aristotle • Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 BC) famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today. • In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart [literally, the antistrophe] of dialectic." As the "antistrophe" of a Greek ode responds to and is patterned after the structure of the "strophe" (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. Thus, while dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly • He identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric--invention, arrangement, and style--and three different types of rhetorical proof: ethos, logos, and pathos

48. A Brief History of Rhetoric:The Romans • The Romans, for whom oration also became an important part of public life, saw much value in Greek rhetoric, hiring Greek rhetoricians to teach in their schools and as private tutors, and imitating and adapting Greek rhetorical works in Latin and with Roman examples. • Roman rhetoric thus largely extends upon and develops its Greek roots, though it tends to prefer practical advice to the theoretical speculations of Greek rhetoricians. • Cicero (106-43 BC) and Quintilian (35-100 AD) were chief among Roman rhetoricians, and their work is an extension of sophistic, Isocratean, Platonic and Aristotelian rhetorical theory • Latin rhetoric was developed out of the Rhodian schools of rhetoric. In the second century BC, Rhodes became an important educational center, particularly of rhetoric, and the sons of noble Roman families studied there

49. The Cannons of Rhetoric

50. The Cannons of Rhetoric • Aristotle and other Greek rhetoricians thought of rhetoric as having five canons or established principles. These principles outline the systems of classical rhetoric • Invention: To discover the available means of persuasion • Arrangement: To select and assemble the argument effectively • Style: To present the argument cogently and eloquently • Memory: To speak extemporaneously • Delivery: To effectively use voice, gestures, text, and images