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Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning

Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning. A tutorial for educators designing and utilizing multimedia in the classroom BEGIN. Let’s get started : Use these buttons to jump around throughout the subsections Or proceed chronologically using these buttons

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Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning

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  1. Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning A tutorial for educators designing and utilizing multimedia in the classroom BEGIN

  2. Let’sgetstarted: Use these buttons to jump around throughout the subsections Or proceed chronologically using these buttons For orientation purposes, the borders correspond with the section you are currently in Previous Next

  3. This tutorial is designed to: • teach the basics of cognitive load theory • help instructors understand the implications cognitive load theory (CLT) has on learning with multimedia presentations • present instructional design techniques for developing and presenting multimedia productions The tutorial will progress as follows: • Background information and definitions required for thoroughly understanding CLT • A presentation of CLT itself • Implications of CLT including cognitive load reduction techniques and theories and CLT with respect to high-achieving students • A review session of topics covered Previous Next

  4. Background Information: • Multimedia Learning: • “learning from words and pictures” • Multimedia Instruction: • “presenting words and pictures that are intended to foster learning” • “Words can be printed…or spoken…[and] pictures can be static…or dynamic” A multimedia presentation of the water cycle Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; USGS, 2009)

  5. Human Memory: • Human memory is theorized to be made up of an interaction among three main parts: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory All information in the surrounding environment enters sensory memory During learning, information from long-term memory is retrieved and placed into working memory Certain information is transferred to working memory Information in working memory is encoded into long-term memory Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004)

  6. Working Memory: • Capacity • Can hold roughly 7 +/- 2 “units” of information • The size of a “unit” is unbounded • Duration • Information in working memory decays very quickly (after 3 sec.) • Affected more by interference – other information or processes being held in working memory – than time • Rehearsal is necessary to hold information in working memory and protect its presence from interference • Maintenance Rehearsal: continuously repeating the information (e.g. repeating a telephone number in order to remember it) • Elaborative Rehearsal: incorporating the information into existing information in long-term memory Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004)

  7. WorkingMemory: • Consists of two independent slave systems controlled by a central executive system. • Articulatory Loop • Where rehearsal of auditory information takes place to hold that information in working memory • Also, where computations on auditory information occurs • Visual-spatial sketchpad • Rehearses spatial and visual information • Performs computations on spatial and visual information • Thus, the amount of visual information does not affect the amount of auditory information that can be held in working memory and visa versa. Executive Control System Visual-Spatial Sketchpad Articulatory Loop Baddeley’s (1986) model of the modes of working memory Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004)

  8. Long-TermMemory: • Capacity • Thought to be unlimited • Duration • Very long • Stores all information including declarative knowledge (knowing “what”), procedural knowledge (knowing “how”), and conditional knowledge (knowing “when” and “why”) • Learning occurs when information from working memory is transferred and encoded in LTM • Factors that affect information transfer to LTM from working memory: • Time held in working memory • Number of times it enters working memory • Meaningfulness of the information (to increase meaningfulness connections must be made between novel information and information already stored in LTM) Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004)

  9. Long-TermMemory: Schema Theory • LTM is made up of various schemas • Schemas are abstract, structured, dynamic representations of information in LTM • As we learn novel concepts, our schemas are altered or new schemas are formed to incorporate the new information in LTM • Entire schemas represent one “unit” in working memory Example schema for dining out at a restaurant. Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Grow, 1996)

  10. Long-TermMemory: Schema Theory • Schemas can also be automated • Schema automaticity occurs when a skill is learned so well it does not place demands on working memory. • For example, most English-speaking adults have achieved automaticity for reading English • But, young children with lower levels of reading ability suffer greater working memory demands because their schemas required for reading are not yet automated. NUESTRO VIAJE A CUBA FUE UNA GRAN EXPERIENCIA. ENCONTRAMOS A MUCHA GENTE Y COMIMOS MUCHO, COMO PLÁTANOS, JUDÍAS Y ARROZ, POLLO, GARBANZOS CON JAMÓN Y SALSICHAS AHUMADAS, FRICASSÉ DE POLLO CON OLIVAS Y UNA GRAN CANTIDAD DE POSTRES CUBANOS, BEBIAS Y ESPECIAS. CUBA ES MUY BONITA Y PENSAMOS VOLVER DE NUEVO ESTE AÑO. Example: Reading this Spanish paragraph places more working memory demands on individuals that have not achieved automaticity for reading Spanish. Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004)

  11. Therefore… Working Memory Long-term Memory • Then, the altered or new schema(s) are recoding back into long-term memory • As novel information is presented, corresponding and required schema(s) are retrieved and placed in working memory. • While in working memory, the novel information is incorporated into the existing schema(s) or similar schema(s) are produced. Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004)

  12. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT): • Cognitive Load is “the load imposed on working memory by information being presented” • Cognitive Load Theory is the notion that “some learning environments impose greater demands than others [and]…impose a higher information processing load on limited cognitive sources in working memory” • This theory is based on the assumptions that: • Working memory’s capacity is limited • Information in LTM is stored as schemas • Schemas represent one “unit” of information • Automaticity of schemas in LTM can be achieved • Learning requires active processing in working memory Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Sweller, 2005)

  13. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT): • There are three distinct subtypes of cognitive load (CL) that combine to make up total CL. Intrinsic + Germane + Extraneous = Total CL • The total CL that can be handled by any given person is fixed because of working memory limitations • The sum of the three subtypes can exceed working memory capacity causing cognitive overload • Excessive information that causes cognitive overload interferes with information in working memory; thus, essential information can be lost and therefore not incorporated into schemas. • The less cognitive load, the easier it is for us to actively process novel information, thus, enhancing learning • Therefore, the three subtypes can be independently manipulated to increase learning and prevent cognitive overload. Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Sweller, 2005)

  14. Intrinsic Cognitive Load: • Is cognitive load produced by the inherent difficulty of the problem. • Intrinsic cognitive load is static and cannot be manipulated by altering its presentation. • Every element in the problem presentation must be processed simultaneously (e.g. reading a word problem + concluding what the problem is asking + solving the problem) which is referred to as element interactivity • Processing certain elements can be an automatic process thus lowering the amount of intrinsic cognitive load of the presented problem for that individual. For example, calculating: will always be simpler than calculating: Because the second problem integrates more elements (division + mixed number conversion) 2 + 2 Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Sweller, 2005)

  15. Germane Cognitive Load: • Is cognitive load placed on working memory due to schema formation and integration as well as schema automation. • Can be manipulated in that any addition working memory capacity can be devoted to germane cognitive load. • Also, certain presentations such as “examples demonstrating a point” can aid in schema formation and thus increases germane cognitive load. • Students must be motivated and actively pursue devoting remaining working memory capacity to germane cognitive load • Explains differences in experienced cognitive load given identical presentation, content ability level, and content knowledge Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Sweller, 2005)

  16. Extraneous Cognitive Load: • Is cognitive load resulting from non-learning related factors • Can be manipulated • Can include superfluous information that is not necessary for learning the presented material such as background music or requiring students to hold mental representations of facts or figures • Can also include student errors such as employing “weak problem solving methods” (Sweller, 2005) John Sweller, PhD on Extraneous Cognitive Load Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Sweller, 2005; Sweller, 2008)

  17. Therefore: Intrinsic + Germane + Extraneous = Total CL To allow for an increase in germane CL Given a multimedia presentation… If intrinsic CL is HIGH… Remove “bells and whistles” Text texttext Working Memory Capacity Level Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Sweller, 2005)

  18. Examples of multimedia that induces high cognitive load: • High intrinsic + high extraneous cognitive load • This is an online math tutorial for adding mixed fractions • The tutorial requires an extensive amount of representation holding • High intrinsic cognitive load • Without proper background knowledge, reading dense academic text induces high intrinsic cognitive load because many of the words are used merely in that context • Thus, the retrieval of the meaning for these words is not automated. Previous Next (Bruning et al., 2004; Bayesian Networks, 2009; AAAMath, 2006)

  19. Cognitive Load Reduction: • Cognitive overload is sometimes obligatory for thoroughly presenting concepts • But, in order to achieve meaningful learning, students must not experience cognitive overload because certain excessive information can interfere with essential processes already in working memory which can, in turn, decay from working memory. • Therefore, multimedia presentations, instructors, or students must employ cognitive load reduction techniques. • However, reducing cognitive load is not always appropriate (see “high-achieving students”) Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003)

  20. Cognitive Load Reduction: • Many cognitive load reduction theories are based on a principle known as the modality effect • The modality effect is the notion that more information can be processed in working memory if corresponding, but not identical, information is presented via visual and auditory media • In other words, more information can be held in working memory and processed if both channels of working memory are utilized Evidence: Allport, Antonis, & Renyolds (1972) • 11 undergraduate students were asked to listen to and “shadow” a verbal passage • “Shadowing” is repeating back verbal information as you hear it • The students were also asked to sight-read piano music (a visual task) • The students performed as well while shadowing the verbal passage than they did while having undivided attention on the sight-reading • Therefore, no performance decrease occurs for visual tasks when auditory interference occurs Previous Next (Low & Sweller, 2005; Allport, Antonis, & Renyolds, 1972)

  21. In other words: Executive Control System Visual information Auditory information Visual-Spatial Sketchpad Articulatory Loop An abundance of visual information places heavy processing demands on the visual-spatial sketchpad system Additional, essential information can be presented as audio narration in order to prevent cognitive overload Once this system reaches capacity, additional visual processes result in cognitive overload Previous Next (Low & Sweller, 2005; Allport, Antonis, & Renyolds, 1972)

  22. Cognitive Load Reduction: • Also, many cognitive load reduction theories are based on a principle known as the redundancy effect • The redundancy effect explains that auditory and visual information presenting identical material (e.g. reading text to the learner) elicits extraneous cognitive load because learners can comprehend information just as well via one channel • The redundancy effect can also occur redundant information is presented via the same channel. Evidence: Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller (1999) • 21 adults were presented either auditory-only text or visual text + auditory reading of that text • The auditory-only groups scored higher on comprehension test of the material presented • This indicates that although the auditory and visual information were processed via separate channels, presenting auditory + visual information loses its effectiveness when the information is identical. Previous Next (Sweller, 2005; Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1999)

  23. Cognitive Load Reduction: • Mayer & Moreno (2005) applied characteristics of LTM and working memory to multimedia learning • Present 5 types of cognitive load during multimedia learning and techniques for reducing each: • Essential processing in visual channel • Essential processing in both channels • Essential processing + extraneous processing • Essential processing + confusing presentation • Essential processing + representational holding Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003)

  24. Essential Processing in the Visual Channel: • Occurs when the visual-spatial sketchpad is overloaded with visual processing demands • Need to utilize the modality effect and replace visual instruction with auditory narration or visa versa Reduction Method 1: Off-loading “move some essential processing from visual channel to auditory channel” Example: Tutorial for adding slide transitions to PowerPoint that employs narration with animation Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Veer, 2008)

  25. Essential Processing (in both channels): • Occurs when both the visual-spatial sketchpad and auditory loop are overloaded with processing demands • Must reduce processing demands by reducing the amount of element interactivity to reduce the intrinsic cognitive load of the material Reduction Method 1: Segmenting “Allow time between successive bite-sized segments” in order to allow students to process the complex material in manageable sections Example: Segmented tutorial of how a bill becomes a law Reduction Method 2: Pretraining “Provide pretraining in names and characteristics of components” in order to approach or achieve automaticity for certain schema to reduce its load on working memory Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; NJ State Legislation, 2002 )

  26. Essential Processing + Extraneous Processing: • Occurs when either or both the visual-spatial sketchpad and auditory loop are overloaded with processing demands incurred by essential processing and extraneous processing • Must reduce extraneous processing demands by reducing extraneous material or scaffolding students for making sense of the extraneous material. Reduction Method 1: Weeding “Eliminate interesting but extraneous material to reduce processing of extraneous material” Example: Eliminating the pointless animation from this slide would alleviate those extraneous processing demands Reduction Method 2: Signaling “Provide cues for how to process the material to reduce processing of extraneous material” by stressing important aspects and taking attention away from extraneous material Example: Bold important concepts Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003)

  27. Essential Processing + Confusing Presentation: • Occurs when either or both the visual-spatial sketchpad and auditory loop are overloaded with processing demands due to a confusing presentation of the material • Must reduce processing demands by streamlining the presentation to eliminate confusion Reduction Method 1: Aligning “Place printed words near corresponding parts of graphics to reduce need for visual scanning” Example: this depiction of the water cycle has words on the graphic Reduction Method 2: Eliminating Redundancy “Avoid presenting identical streams of printed and spoken word” Example: Do not have narration that simply reads the text to the students OR do not simply read text directly from PowerPoint presentations Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; USGS, 2009)

  28. Essential Processing + Representation Holding: • Occurs when either or both the visual-spatial sketchpad and auditory loop are overloaded with processing demands due to essential processing and representation holding • Must reduce processing demands by eliminating the need for maintaining mental models for previously presented information Reduction Method 1: Synchronizing “Present narration and corresponding animation simultaneously to minimize need to hold representations in memory” Reduction Method 2: Individualizing “Make sure learners posses skill at holding mental representations” because low spatial learners have more difficulty with this task whereas high spatial learners benefit from this type of presentation Previous Next (Mayer & Moreno, 2003)

  29. High-Achieving Students: • Employing cognitive load reduction techniques is not always appropriate • Learner expertise plays a role in the effectiveness of cognitive load reduction • Certain cognitive reduction techniques have shown to have negative effects on learners with high levels of expertise of the material presented. • This concept is know as the ExpertiseReversalEffect • Generally, as factors are added to multimedia presentations to reduce cognitive load by adding instructional guidance (e.g. signaling), students with high levels of expertise on the topic can find this redundant • Thus, these students are suffering from the redundancy effect and experiencing unnecessary extraneous load. Previous Next (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003)

  30. Evidence for the Expertise Reversal Effect: • Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller (1998) • Participants were electrical trade workers and had differing levels of expertise in the area of electrical engineering. • The workers were presented with either diagram-only instruction, or diagram + integrated text. • The workers with higher expertise in the area of electrical engineering benefitted more from the diagram-only presentation than those with the same level of expertise that received the diagram + integrated text presentation. • However, the workers with lower expertise levels benefitted more from the diagram + integrated text presentation. • This can be explained by the expertise reversal effect • The redundancy of the material placed extraneous cognitive load on the “experts”, but helped the “novices” further understand the material Previous Next (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003; Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller (1998) )

  31. FOCUS Therefore to minimize extraneous cognitive load: Assess the learners level of expertise on the presented material topic 2. Tailor the presentation depending on expertise level by adding or eliminating instructional guidance High Levels of Expertise Text texttext Texttexttext Low Levels of Expertise Previous Next (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003)

  32. Review: • To review, you will be asked a series of 3 multiple choice questions and 1 identifying question pertaining to the information contained in this tutorial. • Study the question and formulate an answer. • To view the correct answer, simply click the button. • Also, you will be given a review of the summary animations found at the end of each section Answer Previous Next

  33. Question 1: Given this multimedia presentation, what CL reduction techniques should be employed? • The diagram and corresponding text should be integrated • The diagram should not be colorful • The diagram and text should occur on the same page • Both A and C Stage 1: details Stage 2: details Stage 3: details Stage 4: details Stage 5: details Putting the text and diagram on the same page utilizes the aligning technique. And integrating the text and diagram reduces negative effects caused by the split-attention effect Page 1 Page 2 Answer Previous Next

  34. Question 2: When Michelle, a 10th grade student, does her History reading prior to her History class that will have a multimedia lecture on the material in the book, she is utilizing what cognitive load reduction technique? • Off-loading • Weeding • Pretraining • Aligning Pretraining is when names and characteristics of components are presented prior to the multimedia presentation. Therefore, Michelle becomes familiar with novel concepts prior to her History class in order to reduce the cognitive load these concepts produce during the lecture. Answer Previous Next

  35. Question 3: What factor(s) should be considered when presenting multimedia to ESL students? • Additional intrinsic cognitive load is produced because reading in or listening to English is not automated • ESL students generally enjoy multimedia presentations better than traditional instruction • Additional extraneous cognitive load is produced because reading in or listening to English in not automated • ESL students have less working memory capacity when learning in English Since ESL students have not achieved automaticity in reading or listening to English text or narration, this creates another element that must interact with the elements already presented by the material. Thus, intrinsic cognitive load is increased due to higher amounts of element interactivity. Answer Previous Next

  36. Question 4: Name 5 of the 9 techniques for reducing cognitive load. • Off-loading • Segmenting • Pretraining • Weeding • Signaling • Aligning • Eliminating Redundancy • Synchronizing • Individualizing Answer Previous Next

  37. Animated Review: Human Memory is made up of three systems: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory All information in the surrounding environment enters sensory memory During learning, information from long-term memory is retrieved and placed into working memory Certain information is transferred to working memory Information in working memory is encoded into long-term memory Previous Next

  38. During learning Schemas are formed: Working Memory Long-term Memory • Then, the altered or new schema(s) are recoding back into long-term memory • As novel information is presented, corresponding and required schema(s) are retrieved and placed in working memory. • While in working memory, the novel information is incorporated into the existing schema(s) or similar schema(s) are produced. Previous Next

  39. The limited capacity of WM yields CL which is an additive interaction of three subtypes: Intrinsic + Germane + Extraneous = Total CL To allow for an increase in germane CL Given a multimedia presentation… If intrinsic CL is HIGH… Remove “bells and whistles” Text texttext Working Memory Capacity Level Previous Next

  40. CL can be reduced by utilizing aspects of working memory: Executive Control System Visual information Auditory information Visual-Spatial Sketchpad Articulatory Loop An abundance of visual information places heavy processing demands on the visual-spatial sketchpad system Additional, essential information can be presented as audio narration in order to prevent cognitive overload Once this system reaches capacity, additional visual processes result in cognitive overload Previous Next

  41. FOCUS However, CL reduction techniques are not effective for all students: Assess the learners level of expertise on the presented material topic 2. Tailor the presentation depending on expertise level by adding or eliminating instructional guidance High Levels of Expertise Texttexttext Low Levels of Expertise Previous Replay Animation Review OR Next

  42. Congratulations, you have completed the tutorial on Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning! BEGIN AGAINVIEW REFERENCES

  43. References AAAMath (2006). Adding Mized Numbers with the same Denominator. From: http://www.aaastudy.com/fra66dx2.htm. Allport, D. A., Antonis, B., & Reynolds, P. (1972). On the division of attention: A disproof of the single channel hypthesis. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 24, 225-235. Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., Ronning, R., (2004). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Grow, G. (1996). The Organization of Knowledge. From: http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/StratKwlge.html Kalyuga, Chandler, Sweller (1999). Managing split-attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 351-371. Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller (2003). Expertise Reversal Effect. Educational Psychology, 17, 23-33. Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P. & Sweller, J (2004). When redundant on-screen text in multimedia technical instruction can interfere with learning. Human Factors, pp. . Low, R. & Sweller, J. (2005). The Modality Principle in Multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 159-168). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R., Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. In R. Bruning, C. Horn, & L. Pytlikzilling (Eds.), Web-based learning: What do we know? Where do we go? (pp. 23-44). Greenwich, CN: Information Age. Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 19-30). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Sweller, J. (2005). The Redundancy Principle in Multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 159-168). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Sweller, J. (2008). Extraneous Cognitive Load. From: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyuOU2RasRQ. U.S. Geological Survey (2009). The Water Cycle. From: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html. Veer, V. (2008). Adding Custom Animcation to Objects in PowerPoint 2007. From: http://www.youtube.com/v/FDj5wgmxu9Q.

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