AP European History Review 2 nd Semester

1. AP European History Review 2nd Semester Industrial Revolution To European Union

2. The Industrial Revolution • Origins • Agricultural revolution • New methods of farming increased food production, led to population growth & surplus of labor • Capital for investment (banking and credit system) • Mineral resources • Supply of coal & iron ore needed to run machines • Private and public investment built up infrastructure • Roads, bridges, canals, railroads etc. • Markets • colonial empire - market for manufactured goods

3. Technological Changes • Cotton Industry • Water frame – use of hydro power • Crompton’s mule • Combined aspects of the water frame & the Spinning Jenny to increase yarn production • Water powered machines made rivers key locations for production • The Steam engine • James Watt (1736-1819) • Developed the steam engine powered by coal which increased productivity • Steam engines did not need to be located by rivers - development of factories • Coal production quadrupled from 1815 to 1850 to keep up with demand

4. A Revolution in Transportation: Railroad • Richard Trevithick’s locomotive • 1st Steam powered • George Stephenson’s Rocket • 1st public railway line (32 miles long) went 16MPH • The Industrial Factory • Workers were wage earners instead of entrepreneurs • Workers were forced to work regular hours in shifts • Major change from agrarian work • Disciplined with fines, dismissal or beatings

5. The Pace of Industrialization on the Continent • Obstacles to Rapid Industrialization • Lack of a transportation system • Didn’t have good roads or river transit • Upheavals of war • French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars • Weakened political and social stability • Loss of manpower

6. The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution • Population Growth • Decline of the death rate (famine, epidemics, war) & increase in food supply • Agricultural revolution all but ended famine • By 1850, European population was over 265 million • The Great Hunger (Exception to increase in food supply) • Irish population growth • Grew from 4 to 8 million between 1781 & 1845 • Reliance on the potato • Potato crop fails, 1845-1851 • Over 1 million died of starvation and disease • Over 2 million emigrated to U.S. • Ireland became the only European nation with a declining population in the 19th century

7. The Growth of Cities • Rapid, unplanned, growth • Move from rural to urban – left the countryside looking for work in cities • Direct result of industrialization

8. Urban Living Conditions in the Early Industrial Revolution • Cities and suburbs • Sprang up fast with little planning – quickly overcrowded • Unsanitary conditions • Waste flowed through the gutters • Crowding • Rise in prostitution, crime, & sexual immorality • Adulteration of food • Chemicals were added to food and drinks were watered down • Urban Reformers • Edwin Chadwick • Advocated a system of modern sanitary reform • Resulted in first Public Health Act • Use of drainage (sewers) and piped water

9. Efforts at Change • Efforts at Change: The Workers • Luddites • skilled craftspeople who attacked the machines they believed threatened their livelihoods (British) • The People’s Charter (Chartists) British Workers movement • Demanded universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, elimination of property requirements for members of Parliament & annual sessions of Parliament • Attempted to institute change by peaceful, constitutional means • Provided working-class with sense of consciousness

10. RomanticismThe Conservative Order (1815 – 1830) • The Peace Settlement • Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia • Defeated Napoleon • Congress of Vienna (1814 – 1815) • Created policies to maintain European balance of power • Lead by Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign minister) • Believed European monarchs shared common interest of stability • The principal of legitimacy • Considered it necessary to restore legitimate monarchs to preserve traditional institutions • A new balance of power • Strengthen countries to prevent one country from dominating

11. Conservative Ideology • Conservative political thought • Obedience to political authority • Organized religion was crucial to social order • Hated revolutionary upheavals • Advocated slow, gradual changes • Unwilling to accept liberal demands or representative government • Congress of Vienna sought to weaken France and maintain a balance power • Congress of Vienna managed to prevent an all out European conflict for almost a century

12. Conservative Domination: The Concert of Europe • The Concert of Europe • Fear of Revolution & war led to development of the Concert of Europe • Met several times: congresses • Quintuple Alliance • Withdraw armies from France, add France to the Concert of Europe

13. Principle of intervention • Great powers reserved the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their throne • Britain objected to the principle of intervention leading to a breakdown in the Concert of Europe • Britain’s refusal kept Continental Europe from interfering in revolutions in Latin America

14. The Revolt of Latin America • Bourbon monarchy of Spain toppled • Latin American countries begin declaring independence • Simón Bolivar (1783-1830) • Freed Columbia (1819) & Venezuela (1821) • José de San Martín (1778-1850) • Freed Chile (1817) • After 1825, almost all of Latin America was free of colonial domination • Continental Europe looked to intervene, U.S. passed the Monroe Doctrine pledging to support Latin American countries • British Navy was more of a deterrent than U.S. words • Britain began to dominate Latin American economy • British merchants & investors moved in

15. Intervention in the Italian States and Spain • Conservative reaction against the forces of nationalism and liberalism • Austrian forces intervene in Italy • French forces intervene in Spain • Repression in Central Europe • Metternich and the forces of reaction • Liberal and national movements in Germany • Initially weak & remained controlled by landowning class • Burschenshaften – students societies, dedicated to a free and united Germany (symbol of growing liberalism and nationalism) • Karlsbad Decrees (1819) • Metternich had this decree drawn up by the Germanic Confederation in response to the Burschenschaften • The Karlsbad Decrees (1819) • Disbanded the Burschenschaften • Censored the press • Supervised universities • Restrictions on university activities

16. Russia • Start of 19th century, Russia was rural, agricultural, and autocratic • Alexander I (1801-1825) • Raised on ideas of the Enlightenment & seemed sympathetic to reform • Leader of Russia during Napoleonic Wars • After the defeat of Napoleon, his rule turned stricter leading to opposition • Used censorship to govern the people • Nicholas I (1825-1855) • Military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against Nicholas I taking the throne (Decembrist Revolt) • Revolt was crushed by loyal troops • Russia became a police state (secret police) • Nicholas feared revolutions in Russia & in Europe

17. Political liberalism • Ideology of political liberalism • Believed in individual freedom • Protection of civil liberties • Freedom before the law, assembly, speech, press • Modeled after the Declaration of Independence & the Rights of Man & Citizen • The rights of a representative assembly (legislature) to make laws • Political liberalism was embraced by the industrial middle class • They wanted voting rights so they could share power with the landowning class but they didn’t advocate extending those rights to the lower class

18. Nationalism • Part of a community with common institutions, traditions, language, and customs • The community is called a “nation” • Formation of political loyalty • Nationalist ideology • Arose from the French Revolution and spread across Europe • National unity in Germany or Italy threatened to upset the balance of power established with the Congress of Vienna • Independent Hungarian state would breakup the Austrian Empire • Conservatives tried to repress nationalism (Concert of Europe) • Allied with liberalism • Liberals believed their goals could only be realized by people who ruled themselves • Nationalists believed that stronger states comprised of their own people would eventually link communities and ultimately humanity

19. Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850 • Another French Revolution • Charles X (1824-1830) • Liberals were winning elections which angered the king • Issued the July Ordinances • Rigid censorship • Dissolved the legislative assembly • Reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections • Immediate revolt by liberals

20. Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) • Group of moderate liberals appealed to Louis-Philippe, the Duke of Orleans to become the constitutional king of France • Charles X fled to Great Britain & a new monarchy was born • The bourgeois monarch – support for his rule came from the upper middle class • Constitutional changes favor the upper bourgeoisie • Lower bourgeoisie & working class are disappointed that they are excluded from political power

21. Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and Italy (Nationalism) • Primary driving force for these three 1830 revolution was nationalism. • Austrian Netherlands (Catholic Belgium) given to (Protestant) Dutch Republic by the Congress of Vienna • Nationalistic revolt by the Belgians (Protestants) established a constitutional monarchy • Revolt attempts in Poland and Italy • Austrians crushed Italian revolution • Russians crushed Polish revolution

22. Reform in Great Britain • The Reform Act of 1832 • New political power for industrial urban communities (Whigs take power over Tories) • July Revolution in France set the stage for change • Benefited the upper middle class (wealthy industrial middle class) • Reform Act of 1832 – Industrial communities gained a voice in voting • Number of voters increased from 478,000 – 814,000 • Artisans, industrial workers & lower middle classes still had no vote • New Reform Legislation • Poor Law of 1834 – based on the theory that giving aid to the poor & unemployed would encourage laziness • The poor were crowded into workhouses where the living & working conditions were intentionally miserable so people would be encouraged to find employment • Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) • Economic liberals advocated free trade & lower bread prices for workers

23. The Revolutions of 1848 • Yet Another French Revolution • 1846 – agricultural & industrial depression • 1847 – 33% unemployment rate in Paris • Government was corrupt & failed to initiate reform • No suffrage for the middle class • Louis-Philippe abdicates, February 24, 1848 (fled to Britain) • Provisional government established • Elections to be by universal male suffrage • National workshops – jobs for unemployed • Growing split between moderate and liberal republicans • Moderate Government – most of France • Radical liberals – Parisian working class

24. Provisional government established workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc • Unemployed workers got jobs raking leafs, ditch digging & other manual labor jobs • Unemployed workers in the national workshops rose from 10,000 to 120,000, emptying the treasury & prompting moderates to halt the programs • Became little more than unemployment compensation units through public works projects • Workers refused to except the decision leading to four days of fighting in this working class revolt (government prevailed) • Second Republic established • New Constitution ratified • Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected in December, 1848 (nephew of Napoleon)

25. Revolution in Central Europe • French revolts led to promises of reform • Frederick William IV (1840-1861) • Germanic state rulers made concessions to the growing revolutionary sentiments • Freedom of press, abolishing censorship, new constitutions, & working towards a united Germany • Frankfurt Assembly • All German parliament elected by universal male suffrage • Purpose was to prepare a constitution for a united Germany • Frederick William IV refused the offer of “emperor of the Germans” • Frankfurt Assembly disbanded without accomplishing their goal of a united Germany

26. Austrian Empire Louis Kossuth, Hungary • Advocated the formation of a legislature • Metternich flees the country after demonstrations begin & he is dismissed from office • In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control calling for a constituent assembly • Hungary’s wishes granted • Own Legislature • National army • Control over its foreign policy & budget

27. Austria Cont’d • Emperor Ferdinand I & Austrian officials made concessions to revolutionaries but waited for an opportunity to reassert conservative control • Tried to capitalize on division between radical & moderate revolutionaries • Military forces suppressed Czech rebels • Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of his nephew • Francis Joseph I (1848-1916) • Nicholas I of Russia sent in troops to defeat Kossuth’s forces and suppress the revolution • Austrian emperor & propertied classes remained in power

28. The Failures of 1848 • Division within the revolutionaries • Radicals and liberals • Liberties from propertied classes failed to extend male suffrage to the working classes • Liberals were concerned about their property & security & the fear of a social revolution by the working class • Divisions among nationalities • Hungarians demanded autonomy from Austrians but refused to offer the same autonomy to their minorities

29. The Emergence of an Ordered Society • Development of a regular system of police • Purpose of police • Preserve property & lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime, & arrest offenders & to create a disciplined law-abiding society • French Police forces in France and England • Crime and Social Reform • Prison Reform

30. NationalismThe France of Napoleon III: Louis Napoleon & the 2nd Napoleonic Empire • Louis Napoleon: Toward the Second Empire • Used nationalistic & liberal forces to bolster his power • National Assembly rejected his call for revision of constitution to allow him to stand for reelection • Responded by seizing government with the military • Restored universal male suffrage • People elected him president for 10 years so the empire could be restored • Voted him in by an overwhelming majority • Assumed the title of Napoleon III, December 2, 1852

31. The Second Napoleonic Empire • Authoritarian government • Early domestic policies • Economic prosperity • Used government spending to stimulate the economy • Reconstruction of Paris • Built railroads, harbors, roads, & canals • Built hospitals & housing for the people • Baron Haussmann (civil engineer) • Modernized Paris • Wider streets, sewage system, water supply, gaslights • Liberalization of the regime in the face of opposition • Legalized trade unions & gave them the right to strike • Strengthened power of the government

32. Foreign policy: Crimean War • The Ottoman Empire • Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire • Encroachment of the Russian Empire • Loss of territory • The War • Russian demand to protect Christian shrines (Privilege already given to the French) • Ottomans refuse; Russia invades Moldavia and Wallachia • Turks declare war, October 4, 1853 • Britain and France declare war on Russia, March 28, 1854 • Austria remains neutral & does not give the military support Russia was counting on • War ends in March, 1856 (Treaty of Paris) • High death count on both sides due to disease • Political effects of the war • Destroys the Concert of Europe • Austria & Russia now enemies • Russia withdraws from European affairs, so does Britain • Sets the stage for German & Italian unification

33. National Unification: Italy • Kingdom of Piedmont • Northern Italian state that had historically stood up to the Austrian Empire • Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878) of Kingdom of Piedmont • Names Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) as prime minister • Napoleon III’s alliance with Piedmont, 1858 • Cavour agrees to give Napoleon Nice and Savoy in exchange for military support in driving Austria out of Italy • War with Austria, 1859 • France wins a couple of early battles and made peace • Prussia was mobilizing to support Austria • Northern states join Piedmont (nationalists rose up) • Italian nationalists in the 1850’s looked to Piedmont for leadership to provide unification of Italy

34. National Unification: Italy • Guiseppi Garibaldi (1807-1882) • The Red Shirts (Volunteer Army) • Invasion of Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 1860 • Moved up the Peninsula until an army from Piedmont moved south • Garibaldi backs down to prevent a civil war • Kingdom of Italy, March 17, 1861 • Annexation of Venetia, 1866 • Italy became an ally to Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 • Annexation of Rome, 1870 • French troops withdrew due to the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 • Rome became the capital of a unified Italy

35. National Unification: Germany • Zollverein, German customs union which began to unite German states economically • William I, 1861-1888 • Wanted military reforms – planned to double the army’s size • Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) (prime minister)` • Reorganization and mobilization of the army • Realpolitik – political realist, ruling by opportunity, not ideology • Bypassed parliament in pursuing political goals • The Danish War (1864) • Bismarck always fought an isolated opponent • Schleswig and Holstein • Austria & Germany defeated Denmark & split control of the two territories • Joint administration with Austria

36. Austro-Prussian War (1866) • Austro-Prussian War (1866) • Russia remains neutral out of anger over Austria not helping them in the Crimean War • Bismarck buys French neutrality by promising him land • Austrian defeat at Königgratz, July 3, 1866 • Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a faster rate of fire • Prussian troops moved faster due to network of railroads • Signed an easy peace with Austria to avoid creating a hostile enemy • North German Confederation – organized states, signed a military alliance with Southern states (mainly Catholic) • Bismarck proved nationalism & authoritarian government could be combined successfully • King & Chancellor (Bismarck) held the real power, but two houses of Parliament had elected officials from the German States

37. Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) • Two major powers in continental Europe were bound to clash (Prussia & France) • Dispute with France over the throne of Spain • Throne was offered to distant relative of Prussian King • Bismarck edited a telegram from the king to goad the French into war • French declaration of war, July 15, 1870 • Battle of Sedan, September 2, 1870 • Entire French army & Napoleon III are captured • Siege of Paris, capitulates January 28, 1871 • France paid 5 billion francs • Gave up provinces of Alsace & Lorraine to Germany • Southern German states join Northern German Confederation • William I proclaimed kaiser, January 8, 1871, of the Second German Empire • British Prime Minister felt German unification destroyed the previous balance of power

38. The Austrian Empire: Toward a Dual Monarchy • Ausgleich, Compromise, 1867 • Creates a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary • Each monarchy had a separate constitution & legislature • German speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars dominate minorities • Francis Joseph Emperor of Austria/King of Hungary • Some things held in common • Army • Finances • Foreign policy

39. Imperial Russia • Alexander II, 1855-1881 • Emancipation of serfs, March 3, 1861 • Peasants could own property, marry as they chose, & file suits in court • Problems with emancipation • Government bought land from nobles & sold it to the peasants with long term installment plans • Land was often the worst available • Peasants worked for gov. instead of nobles • Zemstvos (local assemblies) • Dominated by noble landowners • Created a local system of courts & judicial code of equality before the law

40. Growing dissatisfaction • Conservatives & liberals were upset with reforms • Assassination of Alexander II (1881) • Populism – student & intellectual group looking to create a new society through revolutionary acts • Alexander is shot & killed by another radical group known as the People’s Will • Alexander III (1881-1894) • Return to traditional methods of repression

41. Great Britain: The Victorian Age • Did not experience revolts in 1848 • Reforms • Economic growth • Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) reflected the age • Symbol of high morals and national pride – Victorian Age • Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) • Tory (Conservative) Party leader • Extension of voting rights • Reform Act, 1867 • Lowered voting requirements (taxes paid or income earned) • More male urban workers could vote • Increased overall number of voters • Established tighter organization of Liberal & Conservative parties

42. William Gladstone (first administration, 1868 – 1874) • Leader of Liberal party (Whigs) • Responsible for liberal reform acts • Civil Service Exams • Secret Ballot • Education Act of 1870 • Attempted to provide free public education at the elementary school level

43. Industrialization on the Continent • Continental industrialization comes of age (1850 – 1871) • Mechanization of textile and cotton industries • Growth of iron and coal industries • Fueled by the expansion of railroads • 1850 – 14,500 miles of track in Europe • 1870 – 70,000 miles of track in Europe • Elimination of trade barriers stimulated economic growth • Government support and financing • Joint-stock investment banks were crucial to stimulation of industrial development

44. Marx and Marxism • Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), The Communist Manifesto, 1848 • History is the history of class struggle • Stages of history • End result of history is a classless society • “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!” • After 1848 Revolutions, Marx went to London • Marx, Das Kapital (writing on political economy) • International Working Men’s Association, 1864 • First International - Organization for working-class interests (formed by British & French trade unions)

45. A New Age of Science • Development of the steam engine led to scientific relationship between heat and mechanical energy • Louis Pasteur – germ theory of disease • 1863 – Pasteurization, process of heating a product to destroy organisms causing spoilage • Dmitri Mendeleyev – atomic weights and formation of periodic law • Michael Faraday – discovered electromagnetic induction and created first generator • Science and Materialism • People turned to science for answers rather than religion • Truth was to be found in the concrete existence of human beings, not religious and romantic ideals • Growing secularization of population

46. Charles Darwin and the Theory of Organic Evolution • Charles Darwin (1809-1882) • On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859 • All plants and animals have evolved over a long period of time • Those who survived had adapted to the environment • The Descent of Man, 1871 • Discussed the humans origin from animals • Ideas highly controversial; gradually accepted • Later applied to society with social darwinism

47. Mass Society

48. The Growth of Industrial Prosperity: New Products & New Markets • Mass Society • In the late 19th century, human progress was measured with material progress and consumption of material goods • Europeans began to value leisure activities and the weekend (free from work) • Lower and middle class began to take trains to amusement parks and the beach • Mass Politics • After 1871, the focus of European life became the national state • Growing sense of nationalism and popularity of sports • Extension of universal male suffrage leads to nationalism to influence the masses • First Industrial Revolution • Textiles, railroads, iron, and coal • Second Industrial Revolution • Steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum

49. Internal Combustion Engine (1878-Gas & Air) • Automobile and airplane • Henry Ford (1863-1947) – mass production (assembly line) • Zeppelin airship, 1900 • Wright brothers, 1903 (1st passenger air service 1919) • New markets • Focused on consumer goods for domestic markets • Prices of food and manufactured goods decreased • Increased wages • Competition for foreign markets • Tariff • Reaction against free trade to guarantee domestic markets for their own industries • Cartels • Companies worked together to fix prices & set production quotas • Larger factories • Assembly lines

50. New Patterns in an Industrial Economy • Economic Patterns, 1873 – 1914 • Depression, 1873 – 1895 • Economic boom, 1895 – 1914 • German Industrial Leadership • Germany replaces Britain as the industrial leader of Europe • New areas of manufacturing (chemicals, electrical equipment) • Industrialized later, so they invested in modern equipment • Encouraged scientific & technical education