Research Strategies

1. Research Strategies Module Two

2. Starts with Critical Thinking Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions • Examines Assumptions • Discernshidden values • Evaluates evidence • Assessesconclusions

3. And a scientific attitude • Three main components • Curious eagerness • Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas • Open-minded humility before nature

4. Scientific Method • Developing a hypothesis • Performing a controlled test • Gathering objective data • Analyzing the result/Survival of Hypothesis (refine hypothesis and retest) • Publishing, criticizing and replicating the results

5. Scientific MethodResearch Process • Developing a research question • Surveying the literature • Hypothesis • Identify: Independent variable/Dependent variable/Extraneous variables • Controls • Sampling/Subjects • Procedure • Results/Statistics • Discussion • New Hypothesis

6. Step One: Developing a hypothesis • Theory • An idea, which hasn’t been disproven • An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations • Hypothesis • Atestable prediction • Often implied by a theory • MUSTbe defined operationally • CAN BE CONFIRMED OR REFUTED!!

7. What makes a good theory? • Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations • Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory

8. Types of Studies • Descriptive • Observation • Naturalistic • Laboratory • Case Study • Individual • Depth • Problems? • Surveys • Random sampling of a population • Strengths? • Weakness? • Correlational • Longitudinal • One group over time • Cross Sectional • Multiple groups at one time • Cohort-Sequential • Experimental

9. Descriptive Studies

10. Case Studies Disadvantages In-depth, detailed information about the case Opportunity to study unusual cases Suggests further study Results cannot be generalized Prone to inaccurate reporting from source Cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships Biased researcher? Advantages Ex Post Facto: “After the fact” selection

11. Surveys Disadvantages Large Groups Random Sampling Easy! Bias in questioning Reporting Challenges False Consensus Effect (tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors Advantages

12. A Little More on Bias Expectation Bias When you allow expectations to affect the outcome of a study Personal Bias When you allow personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study

13. Naturalistic Observation Describes, does not explain, behavior • Used to research • Child-rearing practices • People’s shopping habits • Public courting behaviors

14. Correlational Studies

15. Correlational Studies Disadvantages Examine, test, reveal, compare or describe relationship between two variables Efficient, collect lots of data Make predictions Dispel illusory correlations Utilize preexisting or archival data Cannot establish cause-and-effect Prone to inaccurate reporting Hard to access the impact of additional variables Do not allow for the active manipulation of variables. Advantages

16. Experimental Studies Experimentation The investigator manipulates one or more factorsto observe their effect on some behavior or mental process while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects

17. Step Two: Setting up the test • Independent Variable • The experimental factor that is manipulated • Causes something to happen • The variable whose effect is being studied • X-Axis • Dependent Variable • The experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable • In psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process, or test. • Effect of the independent variable • Y-Axis • Extraneous Variable • All the other things which may affect the dependent variable • Confounding Variable • Systematically affect the relationship between IV and DV and act like IVs

18. Experiments and Controls • Experimental Group: gets the independent variable • Control Group: no change • Purpose • Comparison • Ensure that all groups in the experiment are treated equally except for the manipulation of the independent variable. • Set Up • Random Assignment • Double Blind Studies

19. Experiment Design

20. Experimental Disadvantages Can establish cause-and-effect Operationalization of variables Stresses the control of variables Can implement double-blind or blind procedures High internal validity May be replicated Reduce external validity Difficult to establish adequate control conditions Statistical probability of bias Advantages

21. Step Three: Interpret the Data More on this to come!

22. Step Four: Replication • Can the work withstand the scrutiny of the scientific community? • Roughly 2% of the papers submitted to psychological journals get into print without major revisions. • Often publish their results in the JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION or the JOURNAL OF FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY et.al. • Critics will look for flaws in the research. • Then it is repeated • Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances • Usually with different subjects in different situations