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Introduction section (research proposal)

Introduction section (research proposal). Learning outcomes State different elements of the introduction State advice for each element. Outline. Opening paragraph Review of relevant literature Rationale Aim Research question(s). The opening (Kendall et al., 2000).

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Introduction section (research proposal)

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  1. Introduction section (research proposal) Learning outcomes • State different elements of the introduction • State advice for each element

  2. Outline • Opening paragraph • Review of relevant literature • Rationale • Aim • Research question(s)

  3. The opening (Kendall et al., 2000) Consider the following: • Rhetorical question • Everyday experience • Analogy/metaphor • Striking statistic/fact • Historical fact (mainly in expository writings) • Lack of previous research

  4. Literature review • The literature review is NOT the same for your research proposal as for your final-year project • Purpose of literature review in proposal (Locke et al., 2000): • Justification of research questions and hypotheses • Justification of methods chosen • Not more than that

  5. Literature review: organisation, organisation, organisation • Work from a preliminary outline • Include subheadings to maintain organisation and flow • Only include material that is directly relevant to your proposal • A coherent argument logically leads to the proposed study (Rudestam, 2001)

  6. Literature review: Organisation (2) • Punch (2000): • Thematic and integrated with research proposal • Develop and use a conceptual framework in order to achieve this • Locke et al. (2000, pp. 68-74, 76-77): • Based on a general research question, followed by a specific hypothesis - if appropriate - through which the question will be answered as a frame of reference • Around ‘concepts’ (statements) that justify the hypothesis/es (or otherwise the research question(s))

  7. Organisation (3) (Locke et al., 2000) • Describe the key statements (‘concepts’) that lead to the research question or hypothesis • Describe the supporting research findings already in the literature • Abstract example • Statement 1: A is greater than B • Statement 2: B is greater than C • Therefore, hypothesis: A is greater than C • The structure may be more complex if you have two or more research questions or hypotheses

  8. Concrete example (Locke et al., 2000) • Research question: is physical fitness related to cognition in older adults? More precisely, can an aerobic exercise programme increase cognitive processing speed in older adults? • Hypothesis: Maintenance of physical fitness through a physical training programme increases processing speed in older adults • Supporting statements based on research findings lead to the hypothesis

  9. Concrete example (2): first-stage outline of statements • Statement 1: reaction time is related to physical fitness • Statement 2: level of cognitive functioning depends on maintenance of aerobic capacity of the brain • Statement 3: the aerobic capacity of brain tissue is affected by physical activity-related regional cerebrovascular changes

  10. Concrete example (3.1): second-stage outline of statements • Statement 1: reaction time is related to physical fitness • Comparisons of the reaction time of physically active and inactive people • Note: non-experimental research • Effects of physical training on reaction time in younger people • Note: experimental research, but population is different from that in the proposed research • Reaction time of those in poor physical condition (cardiovascular disease, hypertension) • Note: non-experimental research

  11. Concrete example (3.2): second-stage outline of statements • Statement 2: level of cognitive functioning depends on maintenance of aerobic capacity of the brain • Relationship of cognitive function and aerobic capacity of the brain in ageing individuals • Note: non-experimental research • Relationship of neurological measure of brain function, electroencelography (EEG), to cerebral blood flow and cerebral oxygen uptake in older people • Note: non-experimental research

  12. Concrete example (3.3): second-stage outline of statements • Statement 3: the aerobic capacity of brain tissue is affected by physical activity-related regional cerebrovascular changes • Increased metabolism in specific regions leads to shifts in cerebral blood flow to those regions • Note: non-experimental research • Regional shifts in blood flow in motor areas of the brain are related to physical movement • Note: non-experimental research • Exercise is related to changes in brain capillarization • Note: non-experimental research

  13. Concrete example (4): third-stage outline of statements • Statement 1: reaction time is related to physical fitness • Physically active individuals have faster reaction times than do sedentary individuals (insert supporting references here) • Reaction time is faster after a physical training programme (insert supporting references here) • Cardiovascular-diseased patients have slower reaction time than normal individuals (insert supporting references here) • Statement 2: see Locke et al. (2000) • Statement 3: see Locke et al. (2000)

  14. Another concrete example - research questions • What is the best response format for comprehensive online psychometric assessment of the quality of human-computer interaction? • What is the best layout for online questionnaires? • Supporting statements based on research findings lead to the research questions

  15. Another concrete example (2) - Statements • [Comprehensive assessment:] There are scales for online assessment of HCI with good psychometric properties, but these have been tested in isolation or small groups of scales have been tested • [Response format:] The more ‘scale steps’ (e.g. using Likert scales), the more reliable measurement • [Response format:] The effect of response format on psychometric quality of ‘off-line’ instruments has been investigated in domains other than HCI and the results are inconclusive • [Layout:] Psychometric assessment aims to capture an initial response and avoid corrections, but whole form (all items on one page) may distract respondents and allows making changes to previous answers • [Layout:] Effect of questionnaire layout has been tested in HCI, but not with psychometric instruments

  16. Rationale and aim • Persuade the reader that there is a ‘gap’ in existing knowledge in your area of psychology • Common types of rationale (Field & Hole, 2003): • Test a theory • Replicate (confirm) an existing finding, for example with a slightly different method, different population or both • Extend the findings of previous research, for example by including a new independent variable • Resolve an anomaly from previous research, for example by including an extraneous variable • Aim: follows from and can be combined with rationale

  17. Problem statement (quantitative) • One or more research questions and - where appropriate - research hypotheses • Research question must have an explanatory basis, that is based on an understanding of the relations between variables; must follow from the rationale • Research questions without hypotheses are exploratory, more open-ended

  18. Problem statement (quantitative) (2) • Hypothesis: • States the relationship among variables • Present tense • Written as a research hypothesis (experimental hypothesis) (H1), not as a null hypothesis (H0) • Free of ambiguity • Should be testable • Example: ‘maintenance of physical fitness through a physical training programme increases processing speed in older adults’ • Relationship between research questions and hypotheses: • One-to-one mapping • One-to-many mapping (see Rudestam, 2001)

  19. Problem statement (qualitative) (Rudestam, 2001) • Phenomenological: meaning of an experience or phenomenon • Grounded theory: process • Ethnographic: description of aspects of culture, including interpretation

  20. Example of a qualitative problem statement • What strategies do online shoppers follow when shopping on e-shopping sites? • How do online shoppers cope with usability issues? • Methods: concurrent or retrospective think-aloud (data collection) and process tracing (data analysis) (Gilhooly & Green, 1996; Green & Gilhooly, 1996)

  21. Another example of a qualitative problem statement • How does an individual experience online shopping from home and cope with the following issues: usability of shopping sites, lack of human communication and lack of physical shopping environment? • Methods: interviews and recorded ‘e-shopping trips’ (data collection) and qualitative analysis methods (e.g. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis) (data analysis)

  22. Problem statement (qnt and ql) • If your proposal uses both quantitative and qualitative methods then consider having separate research questions that are addressed by each of the methods

  23. General • Rules for writing the psychology paper (Sternberg, 2003, Chapter 4) and general advice on writing a report (Field & Hole, Chapter 10) • Avoid common misuse of words (Sternberg, 2003, Chapter 5) • Use APA writing style to present information consistently and clearly • Make sure you get it right • APA publication manual (5th edition) • Sternberg (2003, Chapter 6)

  24. Summary and conclusion • Make sure you include all the elements of the introduction in your proposal • Follow the advice • However, do not forget to use your creativity (see Tesser, 2001)

  25. References • Field, A. & Hole, G. (2003). How to design and report experiments. London: Sage. • Gilhooly, K. & Green, S. (1996). Protocol analysis: Theoretical background. In J. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of qualitative research methods for psychology and the social sciences (pp. 43-54). Leicester: British Psychological Society. • Green, S. & Gilhooly, K. (1996). Protocol analysis: Practical implementation. In J. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of qualitative research methods for psychology and the social sciences (pp. 55-74). Leicester: British Psychological Society. • Kendall, C. Silk, J. & Chu, B. (2000). Introducing your research report: Writing the introduction. In R. Sternberg (Ed). Guide to publishing in psychology journals (pp. 41-57). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  26. References • Locke, L., Spirduso, W. & Silverman, S. (2000). Proposals that work : a guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals. London: Sage Punch, K. (2000). Developing effective research proposals. London: Sage. • Rudestam, K. (2001). Surviving your dissertation : a comprehensive guide to content and process (2nd ed.). London : Sage. • Sternberg, R. (2003). The psychologist's companion : a guide to scientific writing for students and researchers (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Tesser, A. (2001). Theories and hypotheses. In R. Sternberg (Ed). Guide to publishing in psychology journals (pp. 58-80). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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