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Chapter 4

Chapter 4. Motivating Effectively. Ability. Performance. Motivation. Situation. The Relationship of Motivation to Performance. Fundamentals of Motivation. Motivation comes from the Latin movere , “to move” Motivation requires: arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal

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Chapter 4

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  1. Chapter 4 Motivating Effectively

  2. Ability Performance Motivation Situation The Relationship of Motivationto Performance

  3. Fundamentals of Motivation • Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to move” • Motivation requires: • arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal • direction to properly focus that behavior • persistence to ultimately attain the goal • The motivation “toolkit” contains: • content or need theories to help us understand what people want • process theories to understand the motivation process

  4. Some Theories Of Motivation • Need (or Content) Theories • Maslow’s Need Hierarchy • Alderfer’s ERG Theory • McClelland’s Manifest Needs • Process Theories • Learning Theory • Goal Setting Theory • Equity Theory • Expectancy Theory

  5. Understanding Employee Needs • A need is something that people require. • Satisfaction is the condition of need fulfillment • Motivation is the attempt to satisfy a need.

  6. Goal Attainment or Frustration Search for Potential Need- Satisfying Goal Attempt to Attain Goal Perception of Potential Need- Satisfying Goal The Need Satisfaction Process (Figure 4-1) Need Deficiency

  7. Maslow’s Needs • Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and sex • Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and economic security • Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact with others, to have friends, and to love and be loved • Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others • Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential, to grow, to be creative, and to accomplish

  8. Satisfaction Progression Maslow’s Need Hierarchy(Figure 4-2) Self- Actualization Esteem Social Security Physiological

  9. Maslow’s Hypotheses • Needs cluster into five sets • Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most salient • A satisfied need is not a motivator • There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -- once needs at a given level are satisfied, those at the next higher level become most important

  10. Evidence Concerning Maslow’sNeed Hierarchy • People do have a variety of needs which vary in levels of satisfaction and importance. • For most needs, satisfaction is negatively related to performance. • Satisfaction of lower level needs is generally necessary before higher level needs become more important. • Other than this, people don’t move up the hierarchy in any predictable fashion. • It appears that people have two or three distinct sets of needs, not five. • For higher level needs, satisfaction and importance are positively related.

  11. Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG) • Existence -- all forms of material and physical desires • Relatedness -- all needs involving relationships with significant other persons • Growth -- All needs involving a person making creative and productive efforts on the self and the environment

  12. Satisfaction Progression Frustration Regression Alderfer’s ERG Theory(Figure 4-3) Growth Needs Relatedness Needs Existence Needs

  13. Differences Between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory • Alderfer collapses Maslow’s five levels into three • Alderfer says growth need strength is positively related to growth need satisfaction • Alderfer sees a hierarchy only in terms of increasing abstractness • Alderfer recognizes frustration regression as well as satisfaction progression

  14. McClelland’s Manifest Needs • Need for Achievement: The need to do well no matter what goal is pursued. • Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people. • Need for Power: The desire to control other people, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them.

  15. Characteristics of Individuals withStrong Need for Achievement • Desire to attain goals. • Desire for personal responsibility. • Desire for quick feedback on performance.

  16. Implications of Need Theories • Different people have different needs structures as well as different needs that may be salient at a given time. • While satisfaction occurs when needs are met, motivation flows from lack of satisfaction. • A reward may satisfy multiple needs. • Needs appear to form two or three clusters.

  17. Implications of Need Theories (Continued) • While most people first focus on existence needs when those needs are not satisfied, it is not possible to say which needs will next become most important. • Both satisfaction progression and frustration regression are important. • The top cluster of needs, sometimes called growth needs, behave differently from others. • It may be possible to develop people’s needs.

  18. Identify the Most Active Needs of Employees Develop Specific Strategies to Satisfy Active Employee Needs Evaluate the Plan Implement Strategies The Bottom Line: Need Theories Assess Employee Needs

  19. Learning Theories • Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience. • Three types of learning: • classical conditioning • operant conditioning • social learning

  20. Step 1: Before Conditioning Bell No Response and Food Response (Salivation) Step 2: During Conditioning Bell Followed by Food Response (Salivation) Step 3: After Conditioning Food Response (Salivation) Classical Conditioning (Figure 4-4)

  21. Stimulus Response Consequence Operant Conditioning (Figure 4-5)

  22. Positive Reinforcement Stimulus Desired Response Positive Consequence Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement) Stimulus Desired Response Removal of Noxious Consequence Avoidance Learning Desired Response Avoidance of Noxious Consequence Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors (Figure 4-6)

  23. Stimulus Undesired Response Positive Consequence Withholding of Positive Consequence Stimulus Undesired Response Stimulus Undesired Response Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Figure 4-7) Nonreinforcement (Extinction)

  24. Noxious Consequence or Withholding of Positive Consequence Stimulus Undesired Response Stimulus Undesired Response Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Fig. 4-7) Continued Punishment

  25. Problems with Use of Punishment • Managers don’t like to punish others. • Managers may feel constrained from using punishment because of company policy or threat of reprisal. • Punishment may engender resentment. • Punishment may lead to revenge and retaliation. • Punishment leads to adherence only when the person administering the punishment is present or monitoring • Others may misinterpret the reasons for punishment. • Punishment may reduce the undesired behavior, but it doesn’t directly teach a desired behavior.

  26. Desired Properties ofReinforcement Schedules • Rapid Learning. The schedule should quickly teach desired behaviors. • High Response Rate. The schedule should have high “bang for the buck” (that is, high levels of motivation at a relatively low cost). • High Response Stability. The schedule should encourage engaging in desired behaviors on a regular basis. • Low Extinction Rate. The schedule should ensure that, once a behavior is learned, it will be maintained even if reinforcement is temporarily stopped.

  27. Reinforcement Schedules • Continuous reinforcement: every instance of the target behavior is reinforced • Fixed-interval: a reinforcer is provided at fixed time intervals (e.g., weekly paycheck) • Variable-interval: a reinforcer is administered randomly around some average interval (e.g., four pop quizzes during semester) • Fixed-ratio: A reinforcer is provided after every n responses (e.g., bonus for every ten units sold) • Variable-ratio: A reinforcer is administered on average every n responses (e.g., payoff on slot machine on average of once every ten pulls of handle)

  28. Comparing the Schedules of Reinforcement (Figure 4-8)

  29. Some Guidelines for Effectively Using Learning Techniques in Organizations • Don’t give the same reward to all. • Recognize that failure to respond has reinforcing consequences. • Tell a person what behavior gets reinforced. • Tell a person what he or she is doing wrong. • Don’t punish in front of others. • Make the consequences equal to the behavior. • Reinforce behaviors as soon as possible.

  30. Obtain Baseline Measure of Target Behavior Define Criterion Level of Target Behavior Identify Appropriate Reinforcer(s) Evaluate the Plan (Assess Levels of Target Behavior Against Criterion) Implement the Plan Identify an Appropriate Schedule of Reinforcement The Bottom Line: Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM) Identify Target Behavior

  31. Functions of Goals • Goals let employees know what they are expected to do. • Goals relieve boredom. • Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads to increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance. • Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others. • Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased self-confidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges.

  32. GOAL ACCEPTANCE MOTIVATION GOAL COMMITMENT Important Goal Characteristics(Figure 4-9) SPECIFIC GOALS DIFFICULT GOALS FEEDBACK ON PROGRESS COMPETITION PARTICIPATION IN GOAL SETTING

  33. Management by Objectives • Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals. • MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance. • MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals. • 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.

  34. Provide Management Support (Including Feedback) for Achievement of Employee Goals Ensure That the Employee Under- Stands the Goals and is Committed to Achieving Them Link Appropriate Consequences to Goal Achievement Assess Employee Job Performance Against Goals The Bottom Line: Goal Setting Theory Use Employee Participation to Set Difficult and Specific Goals

  35. Seneca Mastering Self-Management • “He is most powerful who has power over himself.” Lucius Annaeus Seneca • Self-management is the process of managing oneself. • Instead of relying on others to reward and punish, to direct, to set goals, and to provide feedback, we must learn to use these tools to manage our own behavior.

  36. The Need for Self-Management • Helpful when employees are relatively isolated, such as with telecommuting. • Useful when supervision is lacking or employees are self-directing, such as with enriched jobs and self-managing work groups. • May be used to enhance one’s own performance. • Provides a set of skills that can be transferred from one setting to another. • Often less expensive than traditional motivational techniques.

  37. Consequences of Self-Management • Early evidence of the value of self-management came from clinical settings, where self-management techniques have been very successful in programs dealing with: • weight loss • smoking cessation • phobia reduction • In academic settings, self-management techniques have led to improved study habits and enhanced academic performance. • In organizational settings, self-management techniques have: • reduced absenteeism • increased satisfaction with work and commitment to the organization • improved task performance

  38. Behavioral: • Management of • Our Own • Behaviors • Cognitive: • Development of • Effective Thinking • Patterns Forms of Self-Management Self- Management

  39. Guidelines for Behavioral Self-Management • Pinpoint the specific behavior you want to change or maintain. • Set specific goals for behavioral change. • Keep track of the frequency, duration, and any other dimensions of interest, such as the time and place at which the behavior occurs • Modify cues • Modify consequences • Reorder behavior • Write a contract with yourself • Rehearse • Check your progress on a regular basis • Plan strategies to maintain a successful change

  40. Some Self Goals • Exercise at least four days a week for at least 30 minutes a day. • Spend at least two hours with my children every evening. • Quit smoking for three months.

  41. Some Short-Term Behaviors • Eat breakfast every morning. • Lift weights 4 days/week for at least 1/2 hour daily. • Get 8 hours of sleep per night for the next week. • Go to the library 3-4 hours per day. • Bring packed lunch to school rather than buying food from the school’s deli. • Walk my dog at least once per day. • Limit my TV watching to two hours per day during the week and three hours per day on the weekend. • Spend 20 minutes in the kitchen daily preparing lunch or dinner. • Increase the number of sit-down dinners with my family to at least four times per week.

  42. Some Self-Monitoring Aids • Runner’s log • Calorie log • Diary • Graphs

  43. Monitoring Techniques • Start a schedule/log book which keeps daily track of workout and performance on each exercise. • Keep a weekly pill container -- fill at beginning of week and take vitamins each day. • Put due dates of projects on calendar and track what has been done for projects each week leading up to the due date. • Weigh in once a week at Shell. • Keep a log of the times I get up. • Each time I end up eating fast food I can write down what it was I ate, and how much the meal cost me. • Write on my Daytimer what time I arrive at work/school each day.

  44. Modifying Antecedents • … I will bring my workout clothes to school so that I can work out immediately after class. • Plan a menu for the week beforehand … • I will avoid turning the TV on immediately when I get home at night … • I will not hit the snooze button in the morning so that I will have time to read. • … Therefore, I will need to avoid shopping at these stores unless I have an actual list of what I need, and then only purchase what is on the list. • … Don’t let [myself] feel too hungry, but eat 5-7 small meals each day instead of 2-3 big ones. • I need to study on the second floor of the library where I can’t see my friends.

  45. Modifying Consequences • Allow myself one guilt-free junk food meal per week. • Use log to monitor regularity of oil changes; for every mile over my 3,000 goal, I will give $0.01 to the Red Cross. • Every time I complete a project before it is due I will buy a new CD. • I can have my favorite breakfast (raspberry toaster strudel) if I get up in time. • I will have pictures of me with a flabby belly if I don’t keep to my exercise routine. • I will buy new running shoes if I follow through with my goal. • I will award myself four hours of “free time” on Sunday night to spend having fun.

  46. Reordering of Behavior • Not eating dinner or relaxing until I have exercised. • Eating all vegetables on plate before I eat meat. This way, hopefully, I will be full by the time I attempt to eat it. • Currently the cycle of things is Star Trek -> Sleep -> Getting up -> Getting to school -> Studying. Taping Star Trek and putting it at the end of the cycle … should help me achieve both goals. • One night a week, I should write a letter before I relax in front of the T.V. or play on the computer. • Wash dishes before I cook or eat. • If I made lunch the night before, rather than in the morning as I usually do, and read the paper in the morning, rather than at night when I usually do … I’d be sure I had a lunch.

  47. A Self-Management Contract Effective dates: From June 26, 2004 to September 1, 2004 The following behavior will be monitored by: Lizzie and/or Katherine Aldag Behavior: Use of NordicTrac 4 days per week for 30 minutes per day Monitoring will occur: each day Whenever: Use of NordicTrac occurs at 30 minutes per day I will award snack or half hour of reading. Whenever the behavior does not occur at the specified level, the following consequence will occur:Guilt, harassment by daughters Contract may be revised on: July 19, 2004 Signatures:

  48. Evaluating Program Effectiveness and Maintaining the Desired Change • If initially I am not studying at least 4 hours per night, I might: (1) spend more time studying in the library (I.e., revise my contract), (2) discontinue going to the recreational room, or (3) increase my efforts. …. • If I am not able to stick to doing the exercise 5 times a week because I am so out of shape or because of a hectic holiday/school schedule, I will try doing it 4 times a week. If that doesn’t work, I will go down to 3 times a week and gradually build up to 5 times after I am into a routine and in better shape. I will not do any less than 3 times a week. To maintain this I will keep a weekly body measurement and weight log. Any time I notice that my measurements and weight have increased, I will increase my exercise for that week by renewing and re-signing my contract until I am back to baseline. ….

  49. Evaluating Program Effectiveness and Maintaining the Desired Change (Cont.) • If I am not able to maintain a routine exercise program, I will seek the guidance from an exercise specialist. They are regularly available at the gym I work out at and they specialize in helping individuals develop programs that are both challenging and rewarding. … I will attempt to maintain my exercise program by constantly introducing new techniques that work on different parts of my body. This way I will keep motivated and reduce dullness. • I’ve tried many times to quit snoozing … but never in a formal manner. If my snooze log doesn’t work, I will attempt to move my alarm clocks, get new alarms, or use my alarm that doesn’t have a snooze button. I’ve read that it takes 3 weeks to form a habit. Hopefully if I keep a log for 3 weeks it will become a habit for me to get out of bed when the alarm goes off.

  50. Set Specific Goals for Each Target Behavior Identify the Antecedents of Each Target Behavior Identify Positive and Negative Consequences to Link to Target Behavior Evaluate the Plan and Modify It as Needed Implement the Plan Create a Written Contract That Summarizes the Plan Order Behaviors to Enhance Probability of Attaining Goals The Bottom Line:The Behavioral Self-Management Process Pinpoint Short- and Long-Term Target Behaviors

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