Models of Work Motivation

1. Models of Work Motivation Thomas Li-Ping Tang, Ph.D. Middle Tennessee State University

2. Elements of Motivation • What energizes human behavior (energetic forces), • What directs or channels such behavior (goal orientation), and • How this behavior is maintained or sustained (a systems orientation).

3. The Content Theories of Motivation Focus on What motivates people Focus on Factors Identification of important internal elements Elements my be prioritized within the individual

4. The Process Theories of Motivation Focus on How people are motivated Focus on the Psychological Process Function of the individual’s decision systems

5. Early Psychological Approaches Hedonism Seek pleasure and avoid pain Bentham (1789) coined the term: Hedonic calculus The process by which people calculate the pros and cons of various acts of behavior

6. Instinct Theories Instinct and Unconscious Motivation McDougall (1908) defined an instinct as an inherited or innate psychological disposition Automatic predispositions Freud (1915) argued that individuals are not always aware of all their desires and needs. Dreams, slips of the tongue, the hedonistic principle appears at an unconscious level List of instincts continued to grow

7. The Content Theories of Motivation 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 2. Alderfer’s Existence, Related, Growth (ERG) Theory 3. Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory 4. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self Actualization Self-Esteem Social, Belongingness Safety and Security Physiological

10. Your Needs Same Order Same Importance Same Shape, Over Time

11. Two Categories Growth Needs: Self-Esteem and Self-Actualization Deficiency Needs: Physiological, Safety and Security, and Belongingness

12. Evaluation: Porter (1961) Upper-level managers have more challenging and autonomous jobs and are in a better position to pursue their growth needs than their lower level counterparts.

13. Wahba & Bridwell (1976) The theory is widely accepted, but there is little research evidence to support it. 5 Distinct categories? Hierarchy? Deficiency vs. Growth? Unsatisfied need is important? Satisfaction of lower-level needs leads to the importance of next higher-level needs?

14. Tang & West (1997) The Importance of Human Needs During Peacetime, Retrospective Peacetime, and the Persian Gulf War International Journal of Stress Management, 4 (1), 47-62. Prestige Factor: 15.64 Ranking: 867/1468 Percentile: 41

15. Main Purpose The effect of War on human needs The importance of needs The satisfaction of needs Peacetime vs. Wartime The US vs. Middle East January of 1990 vs. January of 1991 Peacetime in 1993-1994 (Study 1)

16. Design of This Study The US Middle East Peace War Peace War I S I S I S I S I = Importance; S = Satisfaction

17. Study 1 Participants: 137 Employees in the US in 1993 and 1994 Age = 34.48 Education = 15.37 Income = US$23,900 Organizational Tenure = 71.0 months

18. Measures of Needs Porter’s (1961) Need Satisfaction Questionnaire NSQ does not have items related to physiological needs and safety needs. 13-item, 5-point Likert Scale

19. The Need Scale The availability of Water, Food, and Basic Physiological Needs; The security and safety of My Own Life, My Family, and My Country;

20. The Need Scale Develop close friendships, Give help and offer support to other people; Feeling of self-esteem, The prestige and regard received from others; The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment, Self-Fulfillment, Personal growth and development.

21. Factors of Needs During Peacetime The Importance of Needs Principal Components Factor Analysis Eigenvalues greater than 1 Varimax Rotation Scree test We identified 2 Factors

22. Lower-Order Needs (Peacetime) Item Factor Loading Water .91 Food .89 Basic physiological needs .78 Security and safety of my family .67 My own life .66 My country .62.

23. Higher-Order Needs (Peacetime) Item Factor Loading Worthwhile accomplishment .87 Self-Fulfillment .83 Personal growth .75 Self-Esteem .74 Close friendship .59 Give help and offer support .54 Prestige and regard .40.

24. Your Needs

25. Two Levels of Needs

26. Study 2 War-related stress began on August 2, 1990 when Kuwait was occupied by Iraq. The Persian Gulf War started on January 16, 1991. Data were collected between January 16 and April 30, 1991. The Retrospective Peacetime in 1990 The Persian Gulf War in 1991

27. Participants Psychology students in the Middle Tennessee: MTSU, APSU, Fort Campbell N = 564, Male = 184, Female = 360 Age = 23.52 Education = 14.64 Caucasians = 441, African-Americans = 52, Hispanics = 6, Asians = 14, American Indians = 3 Married = 91, Single = 406, Divorced = 16

28. Participants Spouse/Relatives in the war? Yes = 86, No = 441 Close friends in the war? Yes = 280, No = 247.

29. Importance of Lower-Order Needs Peacetime, 1990 Item Factor Loading Water .88 Food .87 Security and safety of My country .74 Basic physiological needs .70 My own life .65 Security and safety of my family .62.

30. Importance of Higher-Order NeedsPeacetime, 1990 Item Factor Loading Worthwhile accomplishment .82 Self-Fulfillment .76 Personal growth .74 Give help and offer support .72 Close friendship .71 Self-Esteem .70 Prestige and regard .63.

31. Two Levels of Needs

32. Importance of NeedsWartime, 1991 Item Factor Loading Security and safety of my family .87 Personal growth .85 Self-Fulfillment .85 Worthwhile accomplishment .84 Self-Esteem .83 Give help and offer support .80 My own life .80 Basic physiological needs .80 Security and safety of My country .79 Close friendship .78 Water .73 Food .72 Prestige and regard .63.

33. Importance of Needs Wartime • All Equally Important

34. Peacetime vs. Wartime Peacetime Wartime t Own life 3.88 4.16 -5.84* Family 3.96 4.25 -6.49* Country 3.53 4.22 -11.92* The Most Important Need Friendship 4.00 Growth 4.33 The Least Important Need Water 3.54 Prestige 3.85

35. With vs. Without Spouse, Relatives, & Friends Importance With Without F Basic needs 4.22 4.02 4.12* Family 4.40 4.18 4.59* Give help 4.25 4.04 4.86* Friendship 4.39 4.13 8.23* Strain 8.12 9.89 4.08* Stress 26.89 25.36 7.11*.

36. Tang & Ibrahim (1998) Importance of Human Needs During Retrospective Peacetime and the Persian Gulf War: Mideastern Employees International Journal of Stress Management, 5 (1), 25-37.

37. Mideastern Culture Saudi Arabia: Much of the country consists of vast deserts where few people live and little or nothing grows. Traditional, outer-directed values: tribalistic, conformist, sociocentric Modern, inner-directed values: egocentric, manipulative, and existential

38. Participants Large government organizations: police officers, military personnel, Large universities: faculty, staff, clerical workers N = 378 Male = 240, Female = 126 Age = 34.04 Income = US$3,259.77

39. Importance of Needs Item Peacetime Wartime The Most Important Water Basic Needs The Least Important Friendships Fulfillment

40. Importance of Needs, Peacetime Factor 1 Factor Loading Self-esteem .76 Prestige .70 My own life .65 Food .61 Accomplishment .59 Self-Fulfillment .56 Water .47.

41. Peacetime Factor 2 Factor Loading Basic needs .70 My country .70 My family .69 Factor 3 Factor Loading Friendships .82 Personal growth .70 Give help .54.

42. Needs

43. Importance of Needs,Wartime Factor 1 Factor Loading Fulfillment .81 My own life .79 Accomplishment .73 My country .57 Friendships .56.

44. Wartime Factor 2 Factor Loading My family .79 Basic needs .73 Personal growth .62 Give help .58 Water .49 Factor 3 Factor Loading Prestige .78 Food .69 Self-esteem .63

45. Tang, Ibrahim, & West Effects of War-Related Stress on the Satisfaction of Human Needs: The United States vs. the Middle East International Journal of Management Theory and Practices, 2002, in press

46. Satisfaction of Needs, The US Needs Peacetime Wartime t Country 3.73 3.37 5.87* Friendships 3.63 3.82 -3.59* The Most Satisfied Water 4.19 Water 4.15 The Least Satisfied Self-Esteem 3.29 Country 3.37.

47. Satisfaction of Needs, Middle East Needs Peacetime Wartime t Food 3.75 3.52 2.71* Own Life 3.95 3.50 5.17* Family 4.07 3.77 4.37* Country 3.58 3.40 2.63* Friendships 3.78 3.51 3.32* The Most Satisfied Water 4.00 Water 3.87 The Least Satisfied Self-Esteem 3.55 Fulfillment 3.37.

48. Satisfaction of Needs, Peacetime, The US Factor 1 Higher-Order Factor Loading Fulfillment .83 Accomplishment .81 Self-Esteem .77 Personal Growth .74 Prestige and regard .67 Give help .66 Friendships .59.

49. Satisfaction of Needs, Peacetime, The US Factor 2 Lower-Order Factor Loading Water .86 Food .86 My family .68 Basic needs .66 My own life .66 My country .60.

50. Satisfaction of Needs, Wartime, The US Factor 1 Higher-Order Factor Loading Accomplishment .81 Fulfillment .81 Self-Esteem .80 Prestige and regard .72 Personal Growth .70 Friendships .61 Give help .59.