History of American Public Education

1. History of American Public Education Historic, economic, political, and social forces and their impact on schools 1600 to present

2. Pre-colonial • Contact with Europeans was minimal and focused mainly on trading. Tribes were autonomous political units. Hunter-gather economy based on the natural resources of the area. Kinship patterns were patrilineal or matrilineal. Spiritualist religion. • Native American children played games to develop knowledge and skills needed for success as adults. • Experientialist perspective www.somd.lib.md.us

3. Colonial Period(1600-1624) • Education favored upper class boys. • The most commonly used book was the bible as religious views dominate education during this period. • No formal schools at this time as survival and religious faith do not allow for education to go beyond the family or private tutoring. • Perennialist perspective www.genesis.net.au/%7Ebible/

4. Early Colonial Period 1600-1624 • The first settlement in Jamestown (VA) is established • Tobacco farms begin to be planted in Virginia in the early 1600s, precipitating the arrival of the first slaves a few years later • The Mayflower and its 101 Puritan colonists arrives and an early form of democratic government is established to protect the well-being of all • Though there is no formal schooling yet, the religious views of the Puritan colonists would eventually dominate education in the colonies Jamestown, Virginia www.kirkwood.k12.mo.us

5. 1625 - 1649 • Massachusetts Bay Colony makes “proper” education compulsory • Virtually all schools were private and catered to wealthy boys and young men • Harvard University opens in 1638 • Most early universities were established by religious denominations to train ministers

6. 1625-1647 Early curriculum was composed primarily of reading and writing. This was important so that the children could read and study scripture. Reading was also very important so that the people could read notices of civil affairs. Curriculum included surveying, navigation, and bookkeeping. Education was primarily for the wealthy. College-prep schools emphasized Latin and Greek theology and philosophy for those getting ready to go into law or religion. In 1647 Massachusetts law demanded that every town of 50 or more families have a writing teacher. A Latin teacher for towns with 100 or more families. Females generally taught the basics so they could carry out their religious and family responsibilities.

7. Picture: http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/pur17.jpg “Dame schools” in homes (often kitchens) of women who tutored young children (mostly boys ages 6-8) Essentialist perspective – discipline the young and teach them to be upright, contributing citizens Main purpose of education: understanding of religious and civic/governing codes Education more of a social responsibility (no longer only the responsibility of parents) Larger towns were required to hire schoolmasters Traveling schoolmasters and “Dame” schools Apprenticeships College mainly for ministers 1650 - 1674

8. 1650 - 1674 • Historical • Religious emphasis • Read prayers/learn catechisms • Primarily for elite • Political • First laws related to education passed 1642 • Citizens need to understand written codes of colonies Source: http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/ • Social • Dame schools • Social harmony via religion and literacy • Economic • Teachers paid for the first time • Perspective • Essentialism

9. Colonialism: 1675-1699 • Indian Wars: battles between the Colonists & the Native Americans • Religious emphasis in education • Schools to prepare students for jobs: focus on reading, writing, basic math • Essentialist perspective

10. 1690 John Locke publishes his essayConcerning Human Understanding;stating the human mind is a blank slate and we learn through experience.*This is important because it went against many mainstream ideas at the time. 1690 the first New England Primer is printed in Boston. Becomes the most widely used schoolbook in New England. Prior to this, education lacked having a standard curriculum to draw from other than the bible. 1693 John Locke writes Some Thought Concerning Education; this describes views on educating upper class boys to be moral, rationally-thinking and reflective young gentlemen.This was valued because many Puritans and Quakers felt we were losing “moral ground” as the country was expanding. 1693 the 2nd college in the US is opened. The College of William and Mary is established. High emphasis on religious studies. 1697 John Locke write On Working Schoolsit is published and focuses on educating the masses. It’s main idea was on developing good work ethics. This was considered a big step in moving education forward to what we consider public education today. 1675-1699

11. Colonial Education 1700-1720 Students were taught the basics; reading, writing and arithmetic School was to prepare students for jobs or apprenticeships Students read from the bible and used their hornbook to help them Strong religious emphasis Although some schools were free, some required tuition to be paid Perennialist approach

12. Early Colonial Education 1700 - 1724 Few schools existed in early colonial times. Most of the schools were parochial schools teaching religious practices. A few were vocational/apprentice schools teaching a trade. Some practical skills taught were navigation, bookkeeping, architecture, and agriculture. Yale was founded 1701 to train ministers and magistrates.

13. 1725-1749 The Birth of Public Education Public primary, secondary and collegiate level schools flourished during this time. Education was used to primarily train students in religious beliefs and practices, usually the Protestant faith. Policy makers, such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin believed language skills and reading were essential for critical thought and preserving the country’s new freedom. Therefore, schools focused on teaching these skills to the wealthy white male students. Women were taught domestic skills and social etiquette. African Americans and poor children were forbidden from public education. Developing citizens and future leaders for this new established country was the main influence on the public school curricula. The Hornbook from which students learned the alphabet, numbers and the Lord’s Prayer.

14. US Education 1750-1774 • Religious Basis for Education – Reading religious literature, Writing • Practical skills to prepare for working in a trade – basic computation, drawing, surveying, navigation, merchant's accounting, agriculture, etc. • Political Influences: Citizenship – addition of history, geography, health and physical fitness

15. Colonial 1750-1774 • The economy was mainly agricultural with artisan and merchants increasing as towns grew larger. Colonies were controlled by Britain and heavily taxed which would lead to the Independence movement. • Academics teach secondary students practical curriculum (drawing, surveying,merchant’s accounting) to become tradespeople and workers . Wealthy white male students could learn literature, mathematics, and science. Female students learned religious texts and skills important for running a household. • Experientalist and Intellectual Traditionalist Perspectives.

16. 1775-1799 • Some children attended school, but not all • Because the U.S. had just gained independence from England the curriculum focused on literacy & citizenship • It was believed that teaching citizenship values & literacy would keep the U.S. economy prosperous & independent from England Image from www.insidetech.com

17. 1775-1799 Thomas Jefferson proposes a two-track educational system, with different tracks for “the laboring and the learned”. Noah Webster writes A Grammatical Institute of the English Language, consisting of three volumes: a spelling book, a grammar book, and a reader. The Northwest Ordinance is enacted by the Confederation Congress and it specifically recognizes the importance of education. “Religion, mortality, and knowledge, being necessary to good environment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” More importantly it stipulates that a section of land in every township of each new state be reserved for the support of education.

18. 1800-1824 Charity Schools Vs. Private Education http://www.link4life.org/media/graphics/large/945E62A6-E9E0-4B4D-4464DF98C36EEC35.jpg http://www.mindenmemories.org/academy/academ2.gif

19. The Birth of the Common Schools: 1825-1849 • Horace Mann: first secretary of the State Board of Education for Mass (1837) • Advocated free public schooling open to all children • Democratic values: accessible education for children from different social classes • Locally run and funded by taxes or charity • Influence spread around the country • Curriculum focused on basic skills (the 3 R’s) • Emphasis on creating a unified nation through education, leading to social harmony Horace Mann

20. 1825 - 1849 • Horace Mann advocated for free public education in order to improve social conditions. Previously only wealthy children attended school. • Schools taught basic skills, history, geography, health, and P.E. • They believed literacy was the key to preserving freedom • Focus on citizenship in curriculum

21. During the period between 1850-1870, most American achieving the free school system supported by property taxes rather than tuition. Expending elementary education for girls as well as boys. The first formal English-speaking kindergarten in America opens. Progressivism perspective Vocational 1850-1875

22. 1850-1874: Local Education • 1850-1852 Horace Mann- “The father of Ed.” -Traveled around Mass. Compiling annual reports -Established the creation of “Common Schools.” The purpose was to create opportunities for all social classes to have access to schools. -1852- The first national Compulsory Education Law- Requiring that every child gets an education. • By 1865- Most states adopt similar laws -Support from state legislatures establishes a need for students . • Schools established and controlled locally -Schools funded not by the federal government or states, but by local communities. Those communities built the mostly 1 room school houses, hired and paid teachers- who were basically independent from any sort of accountability. • By 1874- Vocational High Schools emerge -Students encouraged and educated with specific jobs in mind- especially in manufacturing.

23. 1875-1899 • During this time schools are vocationally oriented and there are no subject matter divisions yet. • The Committee of Ten agrees that High Schools’ functions are to prepare the “Elite Students” for the real world.

24. 1875-1899 Immigrants and economy enhanced diversity in American school districts. American dreams and cultural adaptation demanded the bilingual education and modifying curriculum. Vocational goals played an important role in curriculum planning. William Harris, argues for bilingual education. Harris establishes the first “kindergarten” in America, taught solely in German, to give immigrant students a head start. 1879 Federal officials begin separating Native American children from their families and force them to attend boarding schools off the reservation. Students are punished when caught speaking their native language.   1888-89 Attempts begin to legislate against German and in favor of English. The 1889 Bennett Act in Wisconsin legislates that children ages eight to fourteen in public or private schools must be instructed in English and American History. 1892-93 The National Education Association appoints a “Committee of Ten. The committee concludes that schools should maintain a single academic curriculum and all students should master an equally rigorous curriculum.

25. 1900’s-1911 • Plessy vs. Ferguson just passed in 1986: Separate but equal is found to be constitutional. • Rapid expansion of industrialization and urbanization. • Child labor. • Workers beginning to form labor unions. • Communism philosophy is on the rise. • Massive immigration and assimilation in the schools. • Dewey experimenting with progressivism. • Pavlov received Noble prize for behaviorism in education. • Helen Keller becomes first blind deaf person to graduate college.

26. 1900 - 1909 • The school year consisted of 99 days. • Half of the school-age population was enrolled in school. • 7% of American children were enrolled in Kindergarten. • 8% of enrolled students actually graduated from high school. • 50% enrolled achieved 8th grade status. • In 1905 Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon develop the Binet-Simon Scale to measure intelligence.

27. 1900-1909 • Known as the period of education for the masses. • With 13 million immigrants in America, the goal became to become American. • One aspect of becoming American was to learn the language. • The look of classrooms went to straight rows with teachers up front lecturing.

28. Early 20th Century At the turn of the century-2/3 of schools were rural, one-room schoolhouses Industrialization, immigration, & urbanization influenced political & educational leaders to restructure the nation’s schools Conservative & liberal reformers introduced vocational education to better connect the educational system with American business The modern American university was created offering students practical, inquiry-based curricula (modeled after Europe) Progressive education movement flourished

29. 1920-1920

30. 1920-1929 • The Progressive Education Association called for schools to create curriculum that reached all students' levels • The Scholastic Aptitude Test is first administered and standards were raised for students • Jean Piaget's theory of child cognitive development becomes influential • The Great Depression begins and schools close, teachers are laid off or given lower salaries

31. 1930-1939 Political: Eleanor Roosevelt publishes Good citizenship: The purpose of education -The Eight Year Study begins Economic: Great depression. Most parents could not send children to school Social: Dewey’s cooperative intelligence / socialized economy /social action Historical: The Springfield Plan: Intercultural education/democratic citizenship Progressive curriculum: student’s needs/interests home economics, health, family living

32. 1930-1939 • Before 1930’s businessmen help fund schools, during the Great Depression they wanted loans repaid. Many schools closed. • Progressive Prospective- curriculum based on student’s needs and interests, parallel to those found in society. Home Economics, health, family living, citizenship, and wood shop were added. • The Eight Year Study (1932-1940)- encouraged schools to restructure educational programs according to progressive tenets emphasizing problem solving, creativity, self directed study, and more extensive counseling and guidance for students. Students showed higher grades in all subjects in these schools.

33. A continued move away from small, locally governed school moving into a centralized school government and curriculum. 1940-1949 • Larger, streamlined schools create a “common experience” • for the average American student. • World War II brings a global perspective to American education • Progressive education persists to make its mark with the • inclusion of more hands on curriculum and focus

34. Education 1950 - 1959 The Soviet Union surprised the USA by launching Sputnik, the first satellite, into space. As a result the NDEA of1958 was formed to educate Americans with more rigor. The space race, cold war and national defense were a focus of education. Racial equality in education was a major focus as well. The status quo of “separate but equal” was no longer acceptable. Brown vs.. Board of Education started desegregation of schools.

35. 1950-1959: The Math and Science Years • Russia’s Sputnik puts emphasis on science, mathematics, and languages • Inquiry based curriculum made for a more rigorous curriculum • The Excellence Movement

36. Historical, Political, Economical, and Social Forces at work thought the 1960’s

37. 1960 - American aid to Diem increased. • 1962 - Number of US military advisors in South Vietnam rises to 12,000. • 1962)- John F. Kennedy gave a speech on what later become what is know as the Peace Corps. • 1963 - Viet Cong, the communist guerrillas operating in South Vietnam, defeat units of ARVN, South Vietnamese Army. President Diem overthrown. • 1964 - US destroyer allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese patrol boats. This triggers start of pre-planned American bombing raids on North Vietnam. • 1964- Civil Rights Act • 1965 - 200,000 American combat troops arrive in South Vietnam.

38. 1965- In March a group of professors decided to cancel class to protest the US occupation of Vietnam. • 1966 - US troop numbers in Vietnam rise to 400,000, then to 500,000 the following year. • 1966- More than three thousand undergraduates were getting intensive training in thirty-six languages during summer programs at more than twenty-two institutions through provisions in National Defense Education Act. • 1966- Availability of equal educational opportunities to children of different race, color, religion, and national origin. • 1968 - Tet Offensive - a combined assault by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army on US positions - begins. More than 500 civilians die in My Lai massacre. • 1969 - President Nixon draws back US ground troops from Vietnam.

39. Financial, Political and Social Forces in the United States during the 1960’s Don Nissen

40. Funding of Education1960 through 1969 • Education was on the minds of past presidents Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy way before the 1960s. Each president saw education as a way to improve industry and commerce. But it wasn’t until the cold war and the successful launching of Sputnik in 1957 by the Soviet Union that concern peaked with alarm that the United States’ educational system was inferior to the Soviets and we needed to produce superior scientists. • Historical levels of wealth during the early 60’s led to an age of American optimism, where anything was possible. • President Lyndon B. Johnson decides that education should work towards the goal of improving society. He reworks an idea from President Kennedy and uses it as his main idea to declare “War on Poverty.”

41. Funding of Education - Part 21960 through 1969 • The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) – President Johnson felt that access to education was paramount to success in society. ESEA was designed to address educational inequality that had been exposed by activists associated with the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It passed through congress in 87 days with bi-partisan support and no amendments. • ESEA contained the seeds of Title 1 a program serving the “educationally deprived”(which continues today). ESEA has developed five Title programs offering assistance to schools through the college level. Funding in 2002 was over $8 billion dollars for these programs. provisions. • Prior to ESEA education related decisions were made on the state by state level.

42. Political Background1960 through 1969 • From 1964 to 1966 the Johnson administration pushed through an unprecedented amount of antipoverty legislation which included: • The Revenue Act of 1964 (1964) • The Economic Opportunity Act (1964) provided the basis for: • Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) • Job Corps • Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) • Upward Bound • Head Start • Neighborhood Youth Corps • Community Action Program (CAP) • The College Work-Study Program • Neighborhood Development Centers

43. Political Background – Part 21960 through 1969 • The Civil Rights Act (1964) • The Food Stamp Act (1964) • The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) • The Higher Education Act (1965) • Social Security amendments created Medicare/Medicaid (1965) • The Department of Housing and Urban Development (1965) • The Voting Rights Act (1965) • The Model Cities Act (1966) • The Fair Housing Act (1968) • The Republican administration of President Nixon continued many of these programs under pressure. But started to shift more authority to the states. President Reagan continued to “de-regulate” some of these federal programs.

44. Social Background 1960 through 1969 • The plight of the poor was brought to the public’s attention in the early 1960s through several books, newspaper and magazine articles. Here are two: • Appalachian Poverty by Homer Bigart an article written for the New York Times. • The Other America by Michael Harrington. • Both of these articles motivated John F. Kennedy to visit West Virginia coal mines to visit the working poor. • At the time there was an estimated 50,000,000 forgotten Americans living in poverty.

45. Social Background – Part 2 1960 through 1969 • The early 1960s were dominated by the Civil Rights Movement. African Americans seeking equal rights were often met with violence, beatings and bombings of their churches. The compassionate leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. lead several protests, his most famous a Washington DC march with where he made his "I Have A Dream" speech in August of 1963. • The mid and late 60s were filled with different ideas. A percent of the youth pulled away from the affluent social attitudes gained by the previous generation. Disassociation from mainstream conservatism and materialism led to a “counterculture.” • Anti-war movements in reaction to the Vietnam War contributed to the divisive feelings throughout the US. • 1969 Apollo 11 astronauts walked on the moon.

46. Curriculum Changes1960 through 1969 • The low average high school graduation rate of 35% and the scare provided by Sputnik in 1957 led to a reappearance of curriculum concerned with mathematics and science during the early 1960s. • Phonics was used in elementary schools by reading specialists to try and fix the problems perceived from the previous decade. • In 1966 a Johns Hopkins University study (Equality of Educational Opportunity) was commissioned by the United States Government to assess the overall availability of equal educational opportunities provided to children of different race, religion, color, and nation of origin. This led to later integration and bussing of students in the 1970s.

47. 1970-1979 US Public Education • 1971 - In the case of Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Pennsylvania, the federal court rules that students with mental retardation are entitled to a free public education. (reconstructionist, progressivist) • 1972 - Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 becomes law. Though many people associate this law only with girl's and women's participation in sports, Title IX prohibits discrimination based on sex in all aspects of education. (progressivist) • 1974 - Federal Judge Arthur Garrity orders busing of African American students to predominantly white schools in order to achieve racial integration of public schools in Boston, MA. White parents protest, particularly in South Boston. (resconstructionist, progressivist) • 1975 - The Education of All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) becomes federal law. It requires that a free, appropriate public education, suited to the student's individual needs, and offered in the least restrictive setting be provided for all "handicapped" children. States are given until 1978 (later extended to 1981) to fully implement the law. (progressivist) • 1975 - Newsweek's December 8 cover story, "Why Johnny Can't Write," heats up the debate about national literacy and the back-to-the-basics movement (perennialist).

48. 1970-1979 1971 – Federal court ruled that students with mental retardation are entitled to a free public education. 1974 – Federal Judge Arthur Garrity orders busing of African American students to predominantly white schools in order to achieve racial integration of public schools in Boston. 1975 – The Education of All Handicapped Children Act becomes federal law. It requires that a free, appropriate public education, suited to the student's individual needs, and offered in the least restrictive setting be provided for all "handicapped" children. 1975 – Back-to-the-basics movement heats up because of Newsweek’s cover article “Why Johnny Can’t Write.” 1979 – Department of Education is created, administered by Secretary of Education Shirley Hufstedler. Social Behaviorist Perspective

49. 1980 - 1989 Federal Government Involvement in Education Department of Education (May, 1981): Federal funding and enforcement of federal educational laws Secretary of Education Shirley Hufstedler (First Secretary of Education) Terrel Bell (A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform) President Regan (1981-1989) platform was against federal government in education. Promotion of social issues such as opposition of abortion to support of mandatory prayer in public school. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative For Educational Reform (18 member commission) Responded to observations that the US was failing to meet our nation’s need for a competitive workforce. Results showed: SAT scores dropped over 50 points in the verbal section and nearly 40 points in the math section between 1963 - 1980. Nearly 40% of students could not draw inferences from written material. Only 1/5 could write a persuasive essay and 1/3 could solve multi-step mathematical problems. Recommendations: Content: 4 years of English, 3 years of math, science, and social studies and 1/2 year of computer science Raised admission standards to enter college, consideration of longer school day and year, and salaries of teachers to become professionally competitive and performance based. Noted, Federal government needed to protect the rights of special needs groups. The 1989 Education Summit Attended by the President and the nation’s Governors National standards won’t work by themselves. We need state and local standards as well. Four areas of agreement Establish a process for setting national education goals Greater flexibility and accountability in the use of Federal resources to meet goals A major state-by-state effort needed to restructure the education system. Report annually on progress in achieving goals. Veiwpoints of Essentialism We need to identity the behaviors needed for success in today’s world, so a call for standards. Mastery of concepts needed under the guidance of competent teachers. Madeline Hunter’s Mastery Teaching Model used widely in the 1980’s.

50. 1980-1989 Mt. Saint Helens Erupts (1980) Sandra Day O’Conner became the first woman in Supreme Court (1981) Reagan Announces Defense Plan Called Star Wars(1983) Space Shuttle Challenger exploded 74 seconds after liftoff (1986) Nancy Reagan launches “Just Say No” campaign Berlin Wall Falls (1989) • What is happening in Education? • A Nation at Risk: The Report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983)- President Reagan supported the findings • A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the Twenty-First Century (1989) • National Education Summit (1989) • Curriculum Perspective: Essentialism