Chapter 25

1. Chapter 25 America Moves to the City 1865-1900

2. I. The Urban Frontier Decades following Civil War, population doubled, population of American cities tripled By 1900 40% of Americans were urban dwellers European peasants pushed off land to cities by lure of industrial jobs, revolution in American agriculture fed growing American and European cities 1860 no city in US had 1 million people, by 1890 three cities had over 1 million population (NYC, Chicago, Philadelphia) Skyscrapers became a symbol of the growth of the American city Americans became commuters, mass transit lines spread out from central city to suburbs City became immense, impersonal, megalopolis Different distinct enclaves emerged for business, industry and residential living (often separated by race, ethnic and social class)

3. I. The Urban Frontier Farmers (rural to urban migrants) – agriculture became more mechanized, making a living farming became harder, city life seen as more exciting Move to city was hard, worked on schedule, confined factories African- Americans left the south for Midwestern cities Economic opportunity (factory jobs, service industry) More opportunity and promise for women and children (jobs, schools) Variety, glamour- theaters, social clubs, museums Opportunity for people to raise their standard of living Department stores (Macy’s, Marshall Fields) provided urban workers jobs (many women), ushered in age of consumerism Products available at lower prices, advertising, money back guarantee, trademarks, distinctive brands emerged, contributed to mass culture of Americans

4. I. The Urban Frontier Growth caused cities to respond to new problems (water, sewers, schools, safety) New technology developed to meet challenges Skyscrapers- more efficient use of space, gave cities recognizable skylines Technology- steel frames, elevator, central heat, telephone, electricity Architecture- emerged as a specialized career, new buildings used artistic design to magnify height City Planning designed to make cities more beautiful, functional, control growth Zoning laws- certain areas for certain functions Public libraries, public buildings, parks and recreational spaces Fredrick Law Olmsted designed Central Park nations first urban public park (1860’s)

5. I. The Urban Frontier Overcrowding, poverty caused problems Poor lived near their work Lived in densely populated neighborhoods, tenement building (low-cost housing designed to house many families) Cities were filthy Unpaved streets, trash, dead horses, animal waste all left in the streets Many tenements had no indoor plumbing Late 1880’s government, city planners regulate housing, sanitation, public health, water quality Developed police force and firefighters, improved safety with streetlights Tension between ethnic groups, race, class, neighborhood loyalties defined life for many generations

6. II. The New Immigration Many Europeans migrated to American cities at the end of the 19th century Until 1880’s most came from British Isles and Western Europe Had high rates of literacy and were familiar with representative forms of government After 1880 character of immigrant changed New Immigrants came from Eastern Europe, many Jewish or worshiped in Orthodox churches, poor, illiterate Came to urban areas to seek jobs, some went back many stayed Settled in ethnic neighborhoods and did not assimilate easily into American life

7. III. Southern Europe Uprooted 60 million left in the late 19th and early 20th century, more than half came to US US seen as land of opportunity, sent home “America letters” about freedom from military conscription, religious persecution American industry needed their low wage labor, wanted buyers for land grants, states wanted more population Advertisements in Europe enticed many to come over, persecution pushed many from their homes Jews had best experience with city life and they assimilated and experienced success in cities Many immigrants that stayed struggled to preserve their traditional culture, established schools, newspapers and ethnic restaurants to preserve culture of home Children of immigrants typically adopted American language and culture

8. IV. Reaction to New Immigrants Government did little to weed out new immigrants or help them adjust to American life City government was the most proactive force for their assimilation and they did very little Political machines and party bosses took care of many immigrants; they provided jobs, housing, food and public services in return for votes Immigrants awakened social consciences of American reformers, many used ideas of Christian charity to help immigrants (Christian Socialists), paved the way for Progressive movement of early 20th century

9. IV. Reaction to New Immigrants Jane Adams, reformer form middle class family 1889 opened Hull House in Chicago Settlement House movement began Located in poor neighborhoods; provided instruction in English, daycare, counseling on how to cope with new life, cultural activities Other settlement houses were opened in big cities Became centers of women's activism and social reform Lobbied for women’s protection in factories, battled for welfare for consumers, blacks

10. IV. Reaction to New Immigrants Work of women began new career of social work Urban frontier opened up more opportunities for women Strict social codes prescribed work for women Usually single and type of job depended on race and ethnic class Jobs brought working women economic freedom and social independence

11. V. Narrowing the Welcome Mat 1880’s nativisim returned New immigrants seen as un-American in their ways Competition was fierce for American jobs Worry about dangerous doctrines of socialism, communism, anarchism Anti-foreign organizations grew Hard to unionize new immigrants and they were usually used as “scabs” during strikes American workers wanted to be protected from foreign labor like American industry was protected from foreign competition 1882 Congress passes first restrictive laws to check flow of immigrants, many more passed over the next few decades

12. VI. Churches Confront the Urban Challenges • Protestant churches suffered under changing urban conditions • Traditional doctrines seemed irrelevant, and were slow to raise voice against changing social and economic values • Concern with mounting emphasis on materialism • New Gospel of Wealth said God allowed righteous to prosper • 1875-1925 new liberal ideas and rise of liberal Protestants • Adaptation to modern culture called for social reforms • “Social Gospel” movement • Message of forgiveness, community fellowship, focus on earthly salvation and personal growth • Roman Catholics strong in labor movement • Salvation Army established, appealed to down and out • Christian Scientist movement founded by Mary Baker Eddy found converts in urban areas • YMCA’s provided spiritual, physical education

13. VII. Darwin Disrupts Churches • Religion received blows from modern science • Darwin and natural selection, rejected dogma of “special creations” • Darwin and other new ideas loosened America’s religious roots; religion and personal faith became private matters

14. VIII. The Lust for Learning • More acceptance for tax supported public schools • Helped check abuses of child labor, schools Americanized immigrants and made them better citizens • 1880’ and 1890’s high school education began to spread, idea of free education became a birthright of Americans • Teacher training and teaching as a science (John Dewey) • New Immigration allowed for expansion of Catholic parochial schools • For adults there were free public lectures, the Chautauqua Movement provided lectures and home study • Cities provided better educational facilities than rural areas but across the country literacy rates climbed throughout the century

15. IX. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People • South lagged behind in public education (44% illiterate in 1900) • Champion of black education was Booker T. Washington • 1881 began career at Tuskegee Institute in AL • Taught trades as way to gain economic security • Washington advocated economic progress as path to social equality • W.E.B. Du Bois condemned Washington’s approach • Du Bois was Harvard educated , founder of NAACP (1910) • Demanded A-A’s be given full and immediate equality • Ideas of each reflected life experience of southern and northern blacks

16. X. Hallowed Halls of Ivy • Colleges and universities grew during period • College education became noteworthy for success in the modern world • Women’s colleges, black institutes of education were founded • Growth of higher education can be traced to Morrill Act of 1862 that granted public land to to states to support education • Hatch Act 1887 extended Morrill Act and provided funds to establish agricultural experiment stations for “land grant” colleges • New industrial millionaires gave money to colleges (Vanderbilt, Stanford, Duke, University of Chicago) • Increase in technical, professional and graduate schools • Increase in elective system of education was due to increasing specialization of workforce • Medical schools were established that promoted public health

17. XI. The Appeal of the Press • Books, magazines, newspapers all grew during the Gilded Age • More literate population was a factor • Mechanization allowed presses to feed word hungry public • Public libraries opened in big cities, Carnegie contributed millions toward the construction of libraries • Newspapers became less opinionated and began to publish sensational, scandalous articles • New journalistic tycoons William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer built powerful newspapers • “Yellow journalism” was name given to scandalous papers • Creation of press services like the Associated Press led to the standardization of news

18. XII. Postwar Writing Dime novels about “wild west” first appeared Horatio Alger “rags to riches” stories, reward of success because of hard work Novel writing reflected materialism of industrial society (not rugged individualism of earlier in century), realism about problems of changing society Mark Twain, satire about greed an corruption gave time period its name (Gilded Age 1873) Twain humorist, satirist, foe of social injustice, captured frontier realism with American dialect Stephen Crane wrote about life on streets of urban America, most famous novel The Red Badge of Courage, about Civil War life Jack London wrote about contemporary life and social problems; Call of the Wild, about struggle between modern and older society Black writers, Paul Lawrence Dunbar and Charles Chestnut, different type of realism with black dialect and folklore that captured richness of southern black culture

19. Postwar Art Modern realistic art replaced impressionism Depicted scenes of urban life, slums and streets At turn of the century New York group of artists known as the Ashcan School

20. XIII. The New Morality, Families and Women in the City Battle between sexual attitudes and place of women continued New opportunities for women became tools for liberation Soaring divorce rates, use of birth control, discussion of sexual topics Cities were isolating places for families, family only place for emotional, psychological satisfaction (no longer extended family) Family work habits changed, more children meant more mouths to feed in uncertain urban environment, because of this marriage was delayed, family size dropped 1898- Charlotte Perkins Gilman called on women to abandon dependent status, became part of economy Many feminists began to demand the right to women's suffrage

21. XIV. Families and Women in the City New generation of feminist leaders emerged like Carrie Chapman Catt, demanded equality for women Social responsibilities of women as head of family needed voice in community to vote for public positions Women were increasingly giving right to vote in local elections and control their own property after marriage by the turn of the century Excluded black women, Ida B. Wells took the lead for these women by launching an anti-lynching crusade 1896- formed National Association of Colored Women

22. XV. Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress • Temperance reform found a new life with influx of immigrants • Assault amounted to a type of class warfare (middle class reformers vs. working classes) • 1869 National Prohibition Party formed • Carrie Nation was a leading reformer breaking into saloons and smashing them with a hatchet • Culminated in 1919 with passage of 18th Amendment

23. XV. The Business of Amusement • Music through the phonograph for the masses and the patronage of the newly rich became popular forms of entertainment • Vaudeville and its variety of acts was popular • The first circus appeared (P.T. Barnum) • Wild West shows traveled the country • Baseball was emerging as a national pastime • Basketball was invented by a YMCA instructor in Mass. • Spectator sports like football, boxing, horseracing became popular • Ethnic Americans supported athletes that shared their background • These forms of entertainment, the rise of cities and their cultural attractions caused Americans to adopt a popular mass culture