MOTIVASI, KEPUASAN KERJA & JOB INVOLVEMENT PERTEMUAN 12 & 13

2. MOTIVASI, KEPUASAN KERJA & JOB INVOLVEMENTPERTEMUAN 12 & 13 Matakuliah : L0064 / Psikologi Industri & Organisasi 1 Tahun : 2007 / 2008

3. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to • Explain the content theories of motivation, including achievement, needs hierarch, motivator-hygiene, and job-characteristics theories • Explain the process theories of motivation, including expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories • Understand job satisfaction, its measurement, its relationship to job performance, and the mediating effect of personal characteristics • Describe the personal impact of job loss • Apply motivation theories to predict the effect of pay equity issues, merit pay, and wage-incentive systems • Compare and contrast job involvement and job commitment

4. Theories of Motivation • Content theories • Focus on the importance of work itself, dealing with the specific needs that motivate and direct behavior • Process theories • Deal with the cognitive processes we use in making decisions and choices about our work

5. Content Theories of Motivation • Achievement motivation theory • Needs-hierarchy theory • ERG theory • Motivator-hygiene (two-factor) theory • Job characteristics theory

6. Achievement Motivation TheoryMcClelland (1961) • Emphasizes the need to accomplish something, to do a good job, and to be the best • Three major characteristics of those with high need for achievement • Want to assume responsibility for solving problems • Tend to take calculated risks and set moderate, attainable goals • Need continuing recognition and feedback so they will know how well they are doing

7. Needs Hierarchy TheoryMaslow (1970) • Human needs are arranged in a strict hierarchy of importance • Once we satisfy our lower-order needs, we can pay attention to our higher-level needs • Physiological • Safety • Belonging and love • Esteem • Self-actualization

8. Motivator-Hygiene TheoryHerzberg (1966) • Often referred to as the two-factor theory • Explains work motivation and job satisfaction in terms of job duties and features of the workplace • MeetingMotivatorneeds produces satisfaction • Failure to meetHygiene needs produces dissatisfaction • Jobenrichmentis an effort to expand jobs to increase the opportunity to satisfy motivator needs

9. Motivator-Hygiene TheoryHerzberg (1966) • Motivator needs are internal to the work and include responsibility, achievement, recognition, advancement, career development, and growth • Challenging work leads to satisfaction, but it’s absence does not necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction

10. Motivator-Hygiene TheoryHerzberg (1966) • Hygiene needs are external to the job tasks and involves features of the work environment: company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions and salary • When hygiene needs are not met, the result is dissatisfaction; when they are met, the result is an absence of dissatisfaction • Job enrichment is an effort to expand the scope of the job to give employees a greater role in planning, performing, and evaluating their work

11. Motivator-Hygiene TheoryHerzberg (1966) • Job Enrichment • Remove some management controls and make people accountable and responsible for their work • Create complete work units where possible • Provide regular and continuous feedback • Encourage employees to take on new tasks or become experts in old ones • The goals of job enrichment are to increase personal growth, fulfill needs for achievement and responsibility, and provide recognition

12. Motivation • Performance • Satisfaction High growth need Job Characteristics TheoryHackman & Oldham (1976) • Links specific job characteristics with psychological conditions that lead to greater motivation, performance, and satisfaction for employees who have a high growth need • Core job characteristics: • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Feedback

13. Job Characteristics TheoryHackman & Oldham (1976) • Elements of Job Design • Form larger work units from smaller, specialized tasks • Arrange tasks in meaningful work units to make the worker responsible for an identifiable unit • Give workers responsibility for direct contact with clients and end users • Give workers control over tasks • Arrange for workers to regularly learn how well they are performing on the job

14. Job Characteristics TheoryHackman & Oldham (1976) • Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) • A self-report inventory that measures three aspects of the Job Characteristics theory: • Employee’s perceptions of job characteristics • Employee’s level of growth need • Employee’s satisfaction • Should also consider cognitive demand and production responsibility

15. Process Theories of Motivation • Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE) • Equity theory • Goal-setting theory

16. Expectancy TheoryVroom (1964) • Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE) states that people make choices based on their expectations that certain rewards will follow from certain behaviors • Employees will perform at the level that gives the greatest payoff or benefit • The worth of the reward varies individually • Effort = expectancy x instrumentality x valence

17. Expectancy TheoryVroom (1964) • Expectancy • Employees must decide whether they expect job behaviors to have a high probability of leading to a particular outcome • Instrumentality • Employees must determine whether that outcome will be instrumental in leading to other outcomes • Valence • Employees must decide whether those outcomes have sufficient psychological value to motivate them to behave in a certain way

18. Equity TheoryAdams (1965) • Work motivation is influenced by our perceptions of fairness of treatment • We calculate the ratio of our outcome to input and compare it with what we believe are the ratios of our co-workers • Experience inequity if we get less than others • In presence of inequity we are motivated to do something to reestablish balance

19. Equity TheoryAdams (1965) Three response patterns to inequity • Benevolent • Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with co-workers • Equity sensitive • Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded • Entitled • People believe that everything they receive is their just due

20. Goal-Setting TheoryLocke (1968) • Level of motivation on the job is determined by individual desire to achieve a particular goal • Goal represents what we intend to do at given time in the future • Setting specific and difficult goals can motivate our behavior • Warning: Difficult goals may stimulate our motivation to achieve at the expense of other behaviors, such as helping our colleagues

21. Goal-Setting TheoryLocke (1968) • Individual goal commitment • the strength of our determination to reach our goal • Goal commitment is influenced by • External factors: authority, peer influence, and external rewards • Interactivefactors: competition and the opportunity to participate in setting goals • Internalfactors: self-administered rewards, expectations of success, need for achievement, type-A behavior, self-esteem, internal locus of control

22. Job Satisfaction • Positive and negative feelings and attitudes about our job • Most frequently studied IV in I-O Psychology • People who have positive attitudes toward their work are likely to have positive feelings about their personal and family life • There is a positive and reciprocal relationship between job and life satisfaction • General life satisfaction may be the more influential

23. Measures of Job Satisfaction • Job Descriptive Index (JDI) • Measures pay, promotion, supervision, nature of the work, characteristics of co-workers • Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) • Covers 20 job facets, including advancement, independence, recognition, social status, and working conditions • Personal interviews • Sentence completion tests • Critical incidents technique

24. Job Satisfaction • A single measure of job satisfaction does not identify those areas of specific satisfaction of dissatisfaction • Need to examine what questions are asked and to which population • Satisfaction with specific job facets varied from 22% (promotion policy) to 58% (interest in work) • Only 10 to 13 percent of workers say they are dissatisfied with their jobs • Satisfaction varies with industry and type of job

25. Personal Characteristics and Job Satisfaction • Age – positive relationship • Sex – no clear difference • Race – whites generally more satisfied than minorities • Cognitive ability – depends on education and challenge • Job experience – positive relationship • Use of skills – increase with use of more skills • Job congruence – positive relationship • Organizational justice – positive relationship • Personality – varies with different Big 5 factors • Job control – positive relationship • Occupational level – positive relationship

26. Losing Your Job • Job loss is stressful…. • Those losing higher level jobs suffer more from unemployment • Personal sense of betrayal • Decrease in organizational commitment among survivors

27. Losing Your Job • Finding a new position helps counteract the negative effects unless there is dissatisfaction with the new job • It may help to take a time off to handle the grief before starting a job search • Individuals high in job involvement had increased stress due to job uncertainty, and health problems

28. Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior • There is a positive but weak relationship between satisfaction and productivity • Research indicates that productivity may increase job satisfaction • High job satisfaction is related to prosocial behavior , that is, helpful behaviors directed at customers, co-workers, and supervisors • Counterproductive behavior is related to dissatisfaction

29. Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior • Job satisfaction is negatively related to absenteeism and turnover • There is less absenteeism and turnover in jobs that require a high level of creativity, challenge, complexity, and autonomy • Turnover is not always harmful • Functional turnover occurs when poor employees quit their jobs • Dysfunctional turnover occurs when good employees quit their jobs

30. Perceived Pay Equity • Perceived equity or fairness of pay may be more important than the amount • We tend to develop personal standards of comparison based on the minimum salary we consider acceptable • Reflects Equity theory • Women and minorities generally earn significantly less than white men

31. Merit Pay • Merit pay systems pay higher performing workers more than less productive workers • Widespread disagreement among managers about the behaviors that should be important in making decisions about pay • Supervisors who themselves receive ample pay raises tend to recommend higher raises for subordinates • However, supervisors low in self-esteem may also provide high raises for fear of retribution • Merit pay seems to work better for those lower in positive affect

32. Wage-Incentive Systems • The primary pay system for production workers • The more units produced, the higher the wage • Seldom works in practice • Many work groups establish their own production norms, regardless of the wage-incentive • Most workers prefer a straight hourly system

33. Job Involvement • Job involvement is the intensity of a person’s psychological identification with the job • The higher the identification, the greater is one’s satisfaction • Job involvement is related to personal characteristics, job characteristics and social factors • Older workers and employees who work in teams are more involved • Those workers with growth needs are more involved with enriched jobs

34. Organizational Commitment • Organizational commitment (OC) is the degree of psychological identification with or attachment to the company • Components of OC: • Acceptance of organization’s values and goals • Willingness to exert effort for the organization • Strong desire to remain affiliated with the organization • Longer tenured employees have stronger correlation between OC and job performance

35. Organizational Commitment • Organizational factors related to commitment include job enrichment, autonomy, opportunity to use skills, and positive attitudes toward the work group • There is reciprocity of perceived commitment from the organization; also with organizational equity and justice • The greater the diversity of the organization, the less the commitment among the majority white employees (same for gender)

36. Types of Organizational Commitment • Affective or attitudinal • The employee identifies with the organization, accepts its values, and complies with its demands • Correlates with perceived managerial potential • Continuance or behavioral • Employee is bound by extrinsic factors (“golden handcuffs”) • Normative • Involves a sense of obligation to the employer

37. Organizational Citizenship Behaviors • OCBs involve putting forth extra effort, doing more than the minimum requirements for a job • Include • Taking additional assignments • Voluntarily assisting others • Keeping up with professional development • Following company rules when not being watched • Promoting and protecting the organization • Keeping a positive attitude and tolerating inconveniences • Those who display OCBs tend to be high in conscientiousness, extraversion, optimism and altruism

38. Key Terms • Achievement motivation • Equity theory • Goal-setting theory • Job-characteristics theory • Job congruence • Job enrichment • Job satisfaction • Merit pay • Motivator-hygiene theory • Needs hierarchy theory • Organizational citizenship behaviors • Prosocial behavior • Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy theory • Wage-incentive system