II. Qualitative Research Methods Week 6: Interviewing

1. II. Qualitative Research MethodsWeek 6: Interviewing Social Research Methods Alice Mah

3. Lecture Outline • Introduction • What is an interview and why interview? • Ethics, power and knowledge • Limitations of interviewing • Different forms and types of interview • Interviewing practicalities • Selecting interview respondents • Constructing an interview guide • Interview planning and techniques • Transcription • Analysis of interview material • Conclusion • Seminar preparation: this week’s reading and homework

4. What is an interview? ‘A conversation with a purpose.’ (Burgess, 1988) ‘A verbal exchange of information between two or more people for the principal purpose of one gathering information from the other(s).’ (Pole and Lampard, 2002) ‘The process of interviewing is the production of meanings and it is also the interpretation of reality. A kind of knowledge which is neither predetermined nor absolutely unique is the effect of this interpretative practice.’ (Holstein and Gabrium 1997 )

5. Qualitative interview continuum • Collecting data ------------- Intimate encounter • Semi-structured-------------Unstructured

6. Why interview? • To provide insights into how research participants view the world • Interview as flexible research instrument, widely employed in qualitative research • Control over the data collection/ production • Not self-completed by respondent • Follow up areas of interest: gain an understanding of the context of respondents’ answers • More complete/ ‘rich’ data • Clarify and help the respondent understand the meaning of questions • Probe for further information or clarification

7. Ethics, power and knowledge • Interview is a social interaction between researcher and researched • Qualitative researchers strive to 'give voice' to the researched. This raises issues of: • objectivity (taking sides) • epistemology (whose point of view?) • politics (how do you judge empowerment? ) • power relations between researcher and researched • Issue of transcription (written language is not speech written down)

8. Limitations of interviewing • Less naturalistic and sensitive to context than participant observation– the interview as an ‘artificial’ setting. • Relies too much on the informant’s account of actions that occurred elsewhere in space and time: • Interviewer may not fully understand the ‘local language’ • Omission of details • ‘Distorted lenses’ • But: the extent of these limitations depends on research aims/questions and specific forms/types of interviewing

9. Different forms of interview Structure: Structured, semi-structured and unstructured (qualitative research interviews are either semi-structured or unstructured) Medium: Face-to-face, telephone and online (face-to-face is the most commonly used in qualitative research; telephone and online are cheaper and easier but harderto obtain rapport and ‘rich’ detail) Context: Individual and group

10. Individual interviews • Structured interviews: used in quantitative survey research with standardized questions; focused on maximizing the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts; clearly specified set of research questions. • Semi-structured interviews:most common type of qualitative interviews, also known as qualitative ‘depth’ interviews; follow a topic guide but both the interviewer and the respondent have flexibility in shaping the interview and may depart from the topic guide (with additional questionsand tangents often encouraged to gain deeper insights).

11. Life story or biographical interviews • Minimally structured, highly personal, may involve many meetings, often combined with personal documents (diaries, photographs, letters). • Covers the totality of a person’s life, often focused around significant turning points in individual’s life. • Oral history interviews: more specific life story interviews where the interviewee is asked to reflect upon specific events or periods in the past; gives voice to marginalized or ordinary lives in history; problems of memory lapses and distortions.

12. Narrative interviews (NI) • Unstructured, in-depth interviews, aim to stimulate informant’s spontaneous narrative of events • Critique of question-response schema of most interviews • 1) activate the ‘story schema’ and elicit the narrative from the informant through ‘initiation’: introduction of the initial topic (broad, use of visual aids) • 2) keep the narration going with non-verbal encouragement; no interruptions; active listening • 3) questioning/probing only after the main narration is finished; no why questions, only clarification • Difficult to maintain the ‘rules’ of NI and to manage expectations of the interviewee (for guidance/knowledge)

13. Ethnographic interviews • Context-informed interviews as extension of participant observation (part of triangulation) • Often semi-structured but have a strong tendency to become unstructured (conversation-like) • Power-relationships: interviewing process as an exchange between a researcher and researched. But how much can an ethnographer reveal his or her personal opinions or circumstances? • Ethical dilemmas: confidentiality, privacy, need to renegotiate access.

14. Focus group interviews • Focus group interviews: group discussion is mediated by researcher • A synergy emerges out of the social interaction • Observation of group dynamics • Two meanings of ‘focus’: • a topic for discussion that all participants focus upon. • The group dynamic and social construction of meaning is the focus of the research.

15. Focus group advantages • Group members can challenge the researcher’s agenda • Generation of diverse views therefore particularly useful where the subject of the research is complex or contentious • Analysis of how meanings are made, negotiated and challenged • Safer experience for those who prefer to discuss issues within a group rather than individually • May lead to unanticipated findings • Allows a large number of interviewees to be accessed

16. Focus group problems • How to document data so that you are sure who has said what [video recording] • Group dynamics may silence or exaggerate particular views [importance of skilled moderator] • Economics of interviewing collectively vs. organizational effort required to ensure all can participate [venue, video recorder, moderator] • Issues of confidentiality • The extraordinary environment of the focus group makes difficult, if possible at all, to reconstruct the everyday social interactions • Difficult to analyse

17. Selecting interview respondents • How many interviews? -- It depends on the nature of the topic and the resources available. • Sampling: non-probability: aim to explore a range of views or positions of one or more social milieus • Techniques: gatekeepers, snowballing • Meaning saturation: limited number of views, interpretations or versions of reality • Upper limit: 15-25 individual interviews and 6-8 focus group discussions (Gaskell); other scholars would suggest higher numbers (30-40 individual interviews is also commonly cited, depending on analytical approach)

18. Constructing an interview guide • Formulate research problem and research question(s) • Create a certain amount of order on the topic areas but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview • Formulate research questions or topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions • Try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing (don’t use sociological jargon) • Do not ask leading questions • Remember to ensure that you ask ‘facesheet’ information (name, age, gender, occupation, etc.) to help in contextualising people’s responses • (Bryman, 2008, Social Research Methods, p. 442)

19. Interview planning • Where will the interview take place? Private space where someone won’t be overheard by others? • Importance of technology (recording equipment, sound interference, backup) • Remember to take notes (after the interview if it is a recorded interview) on how it went and initial impressions/themes

20. Criteria of a successful interviewer • Knowledgeable: familiar with the focus of the interview • Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off • Clear: simple, easy, short questions; no jargon • Gentle: lets people finish; gives people time to think • Sensitive: listens attentively; is empathetic • Open: responds to interviewee’s concerns; flexible • Steering: knows what she/he wants to find out • Critical: prepared to challenge what is said • Remembering: relates to what has previously been said • Interpreting: clarifies and extends meaning (not imposing) • Balanced: does not talk too much or too little • Ethically sensitive: sensitive to ethical dimensions (Bryman, 2008 Social Research Methods, adapted from Kvale 1996, p. 445)

21. Transcription • Transcription helps to correct the natural limitations of our memories • It allows for more thorough examination of what people say • It opens up the data to public scrutiny by other researchers • It allows the data to be reused in other ways than intended by the researcher • However, it is time-consuming, requires good equipment and produces a lot of written material

22. Analysis of Interviews • Look for meaning and understanding, particularly through identifying themes, stories, arguments and concepts • Iterative (throughout the research process, go back and forth between theory, method and analysis) • Read and re-read the interview transcriptions and interview notes, mark key words, issues, stories, ideas and themes in the text (coding), relate to original research questions/aims • Various techniques for analysis: not mechanical but relies on creative insights and critical thinking. • Computer-assisted software may be useful to store, sort and code transcribed interviews (to be covered in week 19) but it also has many limitations. *for further information about analysing interview material, see Rubin and Rubin, 1995, recommended reading list.

23. Conclusion • Interviews are opportunities for researchers to ‘collect data’ but at the same time they are social encounters. • Interviews give ‘rich’ data. • There are a number of different forms, types and approaches to qualitative interviewing. • Interviews require planning – particularly in terms of the topics/questions you wish to ask (and why) • Transcription and analysis are important parts of the interview process.

24. Seminar Readings • Gaskell: read first for an overview of individual and group interviewing, then: • Song and Parker for a ‘reflexive’ account of doing interviews in practice, and finally: • Holstein and Gubriumon the ‘active interview’, which argues that all interviews including quantitative interviews are ‘active’ interviews: unavoidably interactional and constructive two-way conversations.

25. Seminar Homework • Draft an interview guide (1 page long) to conduct a semi-structured interview of 30 minutes during the seminar with another student. The interview can be on any sociological topic (egs. ethnicity, class, gender, identity, religion, urban or rural experience, home town or country, family, university, work, etc., keeping in mind issues of sensitivity and ethics) and should be aimed at addressing particular research questions or problems. For some guidance, see Gaskell's description of a topic guide on p. 40 and Bryman (2008, Social Research Methods, p. 442). See also two examples of interview guides from Alice Mah's previous research (available on module resources): http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/undergrad/current/progsandmods/modules/2nd_yr/so238/module-outline/seminar6