The French and Indian War, 1756 - 1763

1. The French and Indian War, 1756 - 1763 The Role of the French and Indian War in Defining American Identity

2. The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War Fred Anderson’s larger work, Crucible of War, is presented in a truncated form in this book. He argues that the French and Indian War is crucial to the development of American Identity. The war was to a large extent a global conflict. Although it started in North America, the conflict erupted in full force in Europe, and then spread like wildfire to all of the colonial possessions each nation held – from the Caribbean to India to the Philippine Islands.

3. George Washington Of all the Founding Fathers, George Washington’s life best illustrates the transformation of the American Identify between the French and Indian War and the Revolution. In 1756, he served under the British in a war against the French and their Indian allies. By 1775, he fought alongside the French in the Revolutionary War against the British. What happened to cause such a dramatic transformation?

4. The French and Indian War One of the most confusing aspects of this war for most Americans, is simply identifying who was fighting in the conflict. It wasn’t the French fighting against the Indians, that’s for certain. Indeed, it is probably best to think of the conflict in two distinctly different ways.

5. The French and Indian War: The Participants and Combatants An American Perspective From the perspective of Native Americans – and one might argue that American Colonists had a more complicated understanding of this than the British – the war was a conflict between the French and the English and the Iroquois Confederation. And the Indians were the ones who held the balance of power at stake. The European View From the European perspective, the conflict was simple. French colonists and their allies – the Iroquois Confederation – were fighting against the British and their colonial partners – the American colonists. The side with the more cohesive bond was likely to win the conflict. But this is a little bit of an oversimplification as well.

6. The English and the French New France: • Catholic – Jesuits • Trade-Based Economically • Strong Indian Alliances • A Sprawling Empire, from Quebec to Louisiana • Small Population – only around 55,000 The English Colonies: • Protestants • Agriculture and Commercial Economically • Poor Alliances with Indians – Encroachment • Confined East of the Appalachians • 1.1 Million Colonists + over 250,000 enslaved

7. Native Americans – The Iroquois Native American populations had been decimated by disease since the arrival of Europeans, and the Northeast was no exception. “Mourning Wars” to replace the tribal losses led to even more bloodshed, plus a dependency on the Europeans for weapons and trade goods. The Iroquois Confederation forms in response to some of these pressures, and remains in conflict with French sponsored tribes in the Great Lakes region until the start of the 18th Century. Until their ouster in the middle 1600s, Dutch traders had kept the Iroquois in a strong position by cultivating the pelt trade with guns and other weapons.

8. Iroquois Agency The Iroquois tribe showed agency – the ability to control their own circumstances throughout the period leading up to the French and Indian War. During the French and Indian War, the Iroquois played a crucial role in the balance of power. Ultimately, however, they are largely written out of the history books because – (a) they lost the conflict, (b) they were condemned to vanish – marginalized by historians of the conflict within a greater narrative of European conquest.

9. The Role of the Iroquois Leading up to the conflict there were major obstacles at work which the Iroquois sought to work out. By the mid-1600s, their principle trading partners, the Dutch, had vacated the Hudson River Valley. The Iroquois signed the Grand Settlement with the French in 1701 – promising neutrality in any conflict between the British and the French. Then, they affirmed another standing treaty with the English – the Covenant Chain – promising to maintain peace with the English.

10. Positioning the Iroquois Confederation for Self-Defense and Survival By signing peace treaties and claiming neutrality, the Iroquois could force European powers to compete for their alliance. Although the Iroquois quite naturally preferred the French as their allies, since English colonists encroached upon their land and were slowly driving all Native Americans west of the Appalachians.

11. The Iroquois: What Was at Stake? Since the “first encounter” experiences of the late 1500s and early 1600s, Native American communities had been at odd with both European settlers and each other. “Mourning Wars” to replace members of the society lost to warfare or disease were common, and the Iroquois earned a number enemies along the way. Their traditional rivals, the Huron, had formed an alliance with the French. The Iroquois hoped that by claiming neutrality, both the French and English would compete for their support – and that they could extract greater influence over the Ohio River Valley and the Great Lakes Region in the process.

12. Fighting the French and Indian War The French and Indian War begins, quite literally, with George Washington being sent on an errand – an errand which he fails to carry out so profoundly that it almost provokes war all by itself. Washington, accompanied by Christopher Gist and a Native American envoy, Tanaghrisson – “The Half-King” – he bravely delivered a formal request to the French instructing them to leave the Ohio River Valley. Having done so, he made contact with a French dispatcher – Joseph Coulon de Villeirs de Jumonville – who had a response, essentially that he must evacuate the lands of the King or France or suffer the consequences.

13. Jumonville’s Assassination Upon hearing the message – and without consulting Washington – the Half-King Tanaghrisson raised his tomahawk and murdered Jumonville. In 18th Century diplomacy, an attack against a messenger of this sort was an act of war. Although France would equivocate for months, they were justified in seeking redress based on this incident. Washington himself – who did not understand French – would sign surrender papers acknowledging his role in the murder.

14. The European State System It was rare that an incident in colonial possessions would lead directly to a state of war between European powers. And in this case, the French would hardly have fought over their Canadian provinces – which were overmatched militarily and in terms of population. In Europe, however, the French had an advantage: they had separated England from their traditional ally Austria – while at the same time maintaining a cautious friendship with Spain. Even if they were at a disadvantage in North America, England’s other far-flung colonial acquisitions were in play.

15. The Conflict in North America The French feared that the rapidly growing population of North America would eventually spill into the Ohio River Valley – compromising their trade rights in that region. By encouraging their Native American allies to attack the periphery of the English settlements, they hoped to be able to force the English Army to react defensively along a huge perimeter. Meanwhile, the French could fortify their own small settlements along the St. Lawrence Seaway and in the Great Lakes region.

16. Divisions in the English Colonies Another reason for hope for the French was the rivalry which existed between colonial leaders who were engaged in land speculation. Companies from Virginia and Pennsylvania were both involved in attempts to secure land grants in the Ohio River region, which they could later sell for enormous mark-ups. In Pennsylvania, the colony nearest the Forks of the Ohio, Quaker influence –pacifism and non-militant posture – had left the region largely without defenses. Even when threatened by Native American invasion, many colonial assemblies were hesitant to tax their people to defend the backcountry – many of the settlers were squatters.

17. The Albany Plan of Union (1754) This failed effort on the part of Benjamin Franklin and colonial leaders to agree to even the most basic cooperative efforts at self-defense demonstrated how divided the English colonies could be. Not even point fifteen could muster support: 15. That they raise and pay soldiers and build forts for the defence of any of the Colonies, and equip vessels of force to guard the coasts and protect the trade on the ocean, lakes, or great rivers; but they shall not impress men in any Colony, without the consent of the Legislature. Other proposals – to regulate all trade with Indian tribes, for example – were also doomed…

18. Major General Edward Braddock A radical departure from the salutary neglect which had characterized American colonists’ interactions with Britain before, Braddock sought control over colonial governments and citizens during the ordeal. He expected compliance from the governors, and he expected rapid action when colonial assemblies were asked to raise revenues or conscript soldiers.

19. Braddock and Duquesne and the Indian Irregulars Ange Duquesne Edward Braddock

20. The Death of Braddock In an attempt to capture Fort Duquesne, Braddock and his men were blindsided and ambushed by a joint force of French and Native Americans. During the battle 2/3 of England’s soldiers were captured or killed, and 3/4 of the officers were casualties. Braddock died in the effort. He was replaced by New Englander William Shirley. His unpaid Lieutenant, George Washington, miraculously survived the assault. He would spend the remainder of the conflict in the Shenandoah Valley, attempting to protect settlers from Indian assaults.

21. The Strategy of the English

22. Severing Supply Lines Since the French were able to project power most effectively against the English colonists from their outpost at Fort Duquesne (present-day Pittsburgh), cutting off the Fort from its supply lines was one of the long term goals of the English. Other targets included the French posts at Fort Niagara, Lake Champlain, Fort Frontenac (Lake Ontario) and the major cities of Canada: Louisbourg, Quebec City, and Montreal.

23. La Guerre Savauge French leaders differed on the manner in which they should use their alliances with the Native Americans. Pierre Vaudreuil, the governor-general of New France, believed that Native Americans should be freed up to act boldly and violently against the English. Montcalm, on the other hand, believed that these allies should be reigned in and forced to behave in accordance with European rules of combat. The debate would fester for much of the war.

24. Lord Loudoun After several setbacks at the hands of the French, English leaders replaced Shirley will the more autocratic Lord Loudoun. Once again, he treated the provincial Americans as second class citizens. Not only did the leader insist upon taxing via the assemblies and conscripting soldiers, he also placed an embargo on all English shipping in order to avoid any espionage regarding an effort to take the French held city of Louisbourg. Not only did his tactic enrage American merchants, it also failed to secure a victory: the French navy was much improved and was in place before his plan could be put into motion.

25. Ticonderoga Although it was through no fault of Loudoun’s he would also be held accountable for the actions which took place at Ticonderoga – the fort located between Lake Champlain and Lake George in New York. After securing surrender terms for his army from the French General Montcalm, Lieutenant Colonel George Monro’s Army began the long march back to New York. But neither Monro nor Montcalm had negotiated with the Indians involved – who sought prisoners, trophies, an plunder. The Indians took them by force. This is the scene remembered in the James Fenimore Cooper novel, The Last of the Mohicans.

26. The Assault at Ticonderoga, though, has larger consequences than the battle itself. When the terms of this surrender were not honored, British generals refused to offer any terms of surrender to French officers for the remainder of the war. They took entire armies prisoner, and even started the deportation of the inhabitants of Quebec.

27. The Ascension of William Pitt Lord Loudoun was replaced in 1758 by the new English Secretary of State, William Pitt. Pitt, recognizing that he’ll catch more flies with sugar than with vinegar, replaces Loudoun with Abercromby and restructures the entire war effort. He offered higher wages. He made provincial officers ranks and responsibilities more equitable with the regular army. He embraced the use of some of the Americans “guerrilla tactics.” He offered the governor’s of the various colonies patronage opportunities to encourage enlistment and participation in the war effort.

28. William Pitt The cost of the war would increase dramatically under William Pitt, but that, he contended, was Minister Newcastle’s problem. In 1758 – the same year that Lord Loudoun was unable to muster 7,000 additional troops from the American colonies, Pitt’s overtures produced over 23,000 men. Victories came in bunches, as the full weight of the population and military advantage bore down on France.

29. Louisbourg Brigadier General James Wolfe’s men landed in Louisbourg in June of 1758, executing a siege against the city which was successful beyond anyone’s wildest expectations. Just finding a landing site was difficult, but once the siege began, very few casualties resulted, and the French surrendered promptly. Due to the lingering effects of Ticonderoga, however, the English required the French to be taken prisoner, and began a massive effort to remove the French inhabitants from the region.

30. French Defeat The French were forced to surrender large armies to the British, who literally sent the soldiers back to France. Efforts were also made to round up and deport all Acadian residents – and to murder members of the Micmac tribe and other French allies from the conflict. Today, we would call this “ethnic cleansing” – a euphemism for murder. Since the murder of English troops at Ticonderoga, however, no honorable terms of surrender were offered for the French. Embarrassed French commanders understood the situation, at least. General Montcalm was horrified by what took place there.

31. Fort Duquesne French forces surrendered the fort, set it ablaze, and flattened it with an explosive charge. Colonial forces in the area at the time say “a very thick smoak from the Fort extending in the bottom along the Ohio.” Since the English had spend time and energy into securing a peace plan with the tribes of the Ohio River Valley that was contingent upon access to trade goods, Fort Pitt was established in 1759 in order to satisfy that need.

32. Quebec

33. Quebec After taking Louisbourg, the English sailed down the St. Lawrence Seaway in order to launch an assault on Quebec. Finding the city’s forces entrenched and abatis in place, the English would scale the Heights of Abraham in order to take the city. Vaudreuil evacuated the city following Montcalm’s death. The British would suffer through an atrocious winter in Quebec.

34. Iroquois Entry into the War The Iroquois entered the conflict against the French as much to help themselves at they did to help the English. Attacking any of the French cities in Canada or the forts along Lake Ontario and Lake Erie required moving through Iroquois territory. But the Iroquois joined the British because they viewed them as an ally which would allow them to establish a suzerain over the Ohio River Valley and to project their influence into the Great Lakes region. Moreover, they would be able to conduct trade with the English – since the fall of Louisbourg, trade with France had been unsatisfactory.

35. Montreal Three British Armies – one descending the St. Lawrence River, one from the Lake Champlain-Richelieu River area, and another ascending the St. Lawrence – met at Montreal in September of 1760. The army consisted of British regulars, American provincials, and hired Iroquois warriors. When Vaudreuil surrendered the city, all official French presence in Canada had vanished.

36. The Treaty of Paris, 1763 The French were removed from North America entirely. England took possession of all land in North America to the Mississippi River, including navigation rights to the River. Spain ceded to England East and West Florida. In exchange, Spain received Cuba, Louisiana – including the city of New Orleans; and all French possessions west of the Mississippi. France retained two small islands off the coast of Newfoundland – and the right to fish in the area.

37. The Consequences of the French and Indian War, 1754 - 1763 By the end of the conflict, British forces – with significant help from American soldiers, have captured Louisbourg and routed French forces all along the St. Lawrence River. French forts along Lake Champlain and Lake George have been captured. French trading posts and military garrisons along the Great Lake and at Fort Duquesne have been captured. The once strong bond between French settlers and the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region and Iroquoia has been permanently scuttled.

38. The Map of North American before the French and Indian War

39. After the Treaty of Paris of 1763

40. The Frontier Retreats During the course of the war, Native American raids by tribes associated with the French Army had had a devastating impact on frontier life in America. In Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, for example, between one-third and one-half of the populations of villages in the backcountry had disappeared. For the most part these settlers had fled East. But close to 4% of the populations had been either killed or taken captive by Native American tribes.

41. A New English Identity: Anti-France; Anti-Catholic; Indian-Haters Particularly after the massacre of troops that had surrendered at Fort Ticonderoga, Americans came to hate all Indians. Striking at frontier communities during times of war created animosity, but the taking of civilian captives – and the violations of the laws of warfare – made Indians a target of American hatred for decades.

42. France as a World Power Although ousted from their American colonies, the French remained a major force to be reckoned with in Europe. The French Navy was much more formidable at the end of the war than it had been at the start, and they had somehow maintained an alliance with Spain – a nation which at one point feared the French were attempting to move in on their Pacific Empire.

43. England as a World Power It is important to remember that England’s colonial population at the start of the French and Indian War was close to 1.1 Million settlers – and they had close to a quarter of a million enslaved people in the colonies as well. The French, who had only 55,000 settlers in New France, had managed to cause England enormous consternation by relying on Native American partners. Although victorious, the policies adopted by William Pitt in the middle of the war after he replaced Lord Loudoun were costly. England would struggle to regain it’s financial stability in the decades to come – and American Identity would continue to emerge as a result!

44. American Soldiers and their Redcoat Counterpart The contempt which English military leaders like Edward Braddock and Lord Loudoun had shown for American soldiers, colonial assemblies, and the governors of the colonies at the outset of the war was no small thing. It was remembered – as were the soldiers quartered in people’s homes, the coerced taxes, and the conscription of American soldiers – at a lower rank than their British counterparts – by intimidation.

45. American Merchants During the French and Indian War • For there part, English soldiers were properly disgusted by the willingness of American merchants to openly trade with the enemy during times of war. This propensity, which undermined the war effort throughout, would continue in future wars, as well.