Human Motivation

1. Human Motivation Chapter 5 Arousal, Attention, and Peak Performance

2. Peak Performance • Peak performance: • Doing the very best that we are capable of • Ability to fully focus on the task in front of us • Persisting in the face of distractions/adversity • One of the main things preventing us from achieving peak performance in our inability to control our attention. • Direction and organization seems to be governed by a large degree by arousal. (When arousal shifts, attention tends to shift.) o

3. Definition of Arousal Arousal: the activation of the brain and body; state of readiness so that we are prepared to engage in adaptive behaviors. Two primary arousal systems: • Cortical arousal system- arouses brain systems. • Autonomic nervous system- arouses the body. • These two systems often function independently. • To conserve energy and reduce wear and tear on the body, these systems are activated only when needed.

4. Reticular Activating System (RAS) Reticular formation is the part of the brain where ascending sensory nerve pathways converge before moving to different sensory areas in the brain. The descending tract influences motor functions. Electroencephalograph (EEG)- amplifies the electrical impulses generated by chemical processes so that there is a permanent record of the activity of various brain structures. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)- a way of tracing blood flow (activity) of the brain by infusing radioactive material. Shows how various areas of the brain respond to external stimuli and cognitive demands. Cortical Arousal

5. Cortical Arousal Prefrontal Cortex • “executive” function of the brain. Involved in • goal-directed behavior- creation of goals, planning the route to a goal, evaluating feedback, and making adjustments. • inhibition of responses to external sources of stimulation and to wide range of emotions. • Highly responsive to novelty. • Allows us to anticipate and prepare for a wide variety of situations. Individuals with ADHD are highly distractible and quick to respond to external sources of stimulation. • Research has shown dysfunctions in the prefrontal cortex.

6. The Autonomic Nervous System • Responsible for many physiological changes that occur when person is in a state of arousal. • Blood flow increases, glucose released for immediate energy, digestion halts, perspiration increases, saliva/mucous secretion decreases, muscles tense, pupils dilate, senses improve. • Pattern of responses is caused by the hypothalamus- triggers two parallel and complementary reactions: • Stimulates activity in the autonomic nervous system and in the endocrine (glandular) system.

7. Arousal, Affect, and Performance Arousal and affect: (inverted U-shape function) • Affect is negative or neutral at low levels of arousal, highly positive at some intermediate level of arousal, and negative (aversive) at very high levels of arousal. • Optimal stimulation theory: motivation to explore, process information, and master the environment is assumed to be governed by a preference for moderate levels of arousal. • Individuals come to a particular situation with different baseline levels of arousal- what is optimal stimulation for one person is not for another.

8. Arousal, Affect, and Performance Arousal and performance: (inverted U-shape function) • High arousal tends to facilitate performance on easy or simple tasks whereas low arousal tends to facilitate performance on difficult or complex tasks. Understanding the U-Shaped Function: • Humans find low levels of stimulation aversive. • Humans find chronically high levels of arousal aversive. (studies of anxiety) • Intellectual functioning becomes impaired- difficulty learning, concentrating, and easily distracted.

9. Arousal, Affect, and Performance Optimal Stimulation and Individual Goals: • Level of stimulation people prefer depends on their goals. • Telic goals- people are motivated by the need for achievement; they plan activities carefully and tend to complete them. • Behavior is marked by efficiency rather than pleasure. • Serious minded and future oriented. • Paratelic goals- people are motivated by a desire to experience pleasure in the here and now. • Behavior is marked by pleasure. • Playful and spontaneous.

10. Arousal and Attention • Low arousal: attention is broad/inclusive • Attend to many things; process a lot of info • High arousal: attention is narrow/exclusive • Attend to few things; focus on survival stimuli • Can lead to the reorganization of attention Two Activation Systems: • Negative Activation (NA): avoidance system • Inhibits behaviors that might lead to pain, punishment, or some other negative consequence. • Positive Activation (PA): approach system • Directs individuals to experiences that offer pleasure or reward. (Governs most daily behavior- unless threatened).

11. Arousal Systems Trait arousal: characterizes the individual more or less independently of the situation High trail arousal = anxiety, negative emotionality - focus on threats and perceived inability to deal w/threats State arousal: arises out of the individuals’ interaction with the environment • Sensory overload • Cognitive dissonance • Evaluation arousal

12. Trait Arousal (Anxiety) The Biological Component: • Significant genetic component • Eysenck’s Theory:extraverts have relatively low arousal level; introverts have relatively high arousal level The Learned Social Component: • Barlow’s Theory: high arousal shifts attention to threat and danger cues; reorganizes attention to process mainly negative information The Cognitive Component: • Anxiety is a personality trait; anxiety depends on how the individual appraises the world

13. State Arousal: Sensory Overload • Response to biological rhythms or environmental stimuli (leads to high arousal and stress) • Leads to narrowing of attention; performance failure The Biological Component: • The GABA system: controls neurotransmitters The Learned Component: • We can learn to control arousal (restrict incoming stimulation, relax, meditate) The Cognitive Component: • The way we interpret information can have an effect on the experience of increased arousal.

14. State Arousal: Cognitive Dissonance • Encountering new information that is inconsistent to what we already know- often interferes with performance The Biological Component: • Leads to psychological discomfort- tension/drive state; brain become active The Learned Component: • Aversive state motivates individuals to take remedial action; strategies reinforced The Cognitive Component: • People are inclined to maintain existing beliefs- will sometimes change attitudes to match behaviors.

15. State Arousal: Evaluation Arousal: Test Anxiety • Test anxiety exerts negative impact on performance measures; tendency to focus on intrusive thoughts The Biological Component: • Physiological changes- increases autonomic arousal The Learned Component: • Self-preoccupying intrusive thinking interferes with task-focused thinking • can be reduced when we focus on the task The Cognitive Component: • When test perceived as threat, problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies may help

16. State Arousal: Evaluation Arousal: Competition • May lead to deterioration of performance • Achievement predictions linked to mastery and work, not competitiveness. The Biological Component: • Competition creates high autonomic arousal The Learned Component: • Competition is largely learned; does not necessarily enhance performance. The Cognitive Component: • People with strong need to win have fairly negative views of self/world and lack poor stress coping skills.

17. Arousal And Performance • The best way to attain peak performance is to learn how to manage arousal- in other words, how to relax. • By learning to manage arousal, we can learn to manage attention.