Language and Culture

1. Language and Culture

2. Language and Thought • Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: the theory that the structure of a language influences how its speakers perceive the world around them • Linguistic determinism: the strongest form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which claims that the language we speak determines how we perceive the world • Whorf claimed that the Hopi people do not perceive time in the same way as speakers of European languages because the Hopi language does make grammatical distinctions in tense

3. Language and Thought • Linguistic relativism: a weaker form of the hypothesis which claims that different languages encode different categories which an influence a speaker’s perceptions of the world • Navaho: green and blue expressed as one word • Russian: siniy (dark blue) and goluboy (light blue) • Zuni: yellow and orange are expressed as one word

4. Language and Thought • The strong form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is clearly false • We can translate between languages • We can learn additional languages • If we don’t have a particular word for a concept, we can express the concept with a string of words

5. Language and Thought • Hopi does have a system for expressing time. Hopi uses words for days of the week, parts of the day, etc. to express tense rather than using word endings like English • Although languages differ in their color terms, speakers can perceive differences even if their language does not have a word to express the difference

6. Language and Thought • Some psychologists have suggested that speakers of gender-marking languages think about objects as being gendered • In Spanish the word “bridge” is masculine (el puente), and Spanish speakers described a bridge with masculine adjectives such as big, dangerous, long, strong, and sturdy • In German, the word “bridge” is feminine (die Brücke) and German speakers described a bridge with feminine adjectives such as beautiful, elegant, fragile, pretty, and slender • This evidence seems to support a weak version of linguistic relativism

7. What We Know About Language • 1. Wherever humans exist, language exists • 2. There are no “primitive” languages—all languages are equally complex and expressive • 3. All languages change over time • 4. The relationships between signs (sounds or gestures) and meanings are arbitrary

8. What We Know About Language • 5. All human languages combine a finite set of discrete signs to make words, which can then be combined to make an infinite set of sentences • 6. All grammars contain rules for word and sentence formation • 7. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments and a class of vowels and consonants

9. What We Know About Language • 8. Similar grammatical categories are found across languages • 9. There are universal semantic properties across languages • 10. Every language can negate, form questions, issue commands, refer to past or future time, etc. • 11. All languages allow abstractions

10. What We Know About Language • 12. All languages have slang, epithets, taboos, and euphemisms • 13. All languages have hypothetical, counterfactual, conditional, unreal, and fictional utterances • 14. All languages exhibit freedom from stimulus

11. What We Know About Language • 15. Speakers of all languages can create and understand an infinite number of sentences • 16. The ability for humans to acquire, know, and use language is a biologically based ability rooted in the structure of the human brain • 17. Any normal child is capable of learning any language to which he or she is exposed

12. Language as Grammar The object of a science of linguistics (Saussure).

13. Noam Chomsky (1928-) • Syntactic Structures • Review of Skinner: ‘Verbal Behavior’ (1959) Universal Grammar difference between surface structure and deep structure in language

14. Three Views of Language • Language as Grammar: • Language as communication: • Language as thing:

15. Grammar • Three sub-systems • Representational • Phonology (sounds), graphic, gestural • Lexical • morphology; words and morphemes • (Syn)tactic = syntax

17. Language as communication • Language as Text. • The Interaction of People • The Interpretation of Texts • What do you communicate? Ideas? Emotions? Intentions? • How do you communicate? • Messages: • The interpretation of messages • The construction of messages

19. Language as thing • Language as an element in social constructs. • Language planning, code switching, dialect debates.

20. Note: to distinguish between and language and communication, look at the following questions: 1. Is language as Dawkins suggests part of the DNA of homosapiens? 2. Is there a “creative” component (the horrible honeybee story)

21. Competence v. Performance Langue v parole Structure v event Structural v communicative universal v dialect

22. Approaches to language and culture Wardhaugh, quite sensibly, argues that sociolinguistics is both macrolinguistic and microlinguistic: • Microlinguistic-- language emphasis • Macrolinguistics – social emphasis • Whorf, Politeness; French Structuralism (Lévi-Strauss). Communicative approaches: p. 14 Language and power (Fairclough), Social construction of reality (Berger and Luckmann); Language and Symbolic Power (Bourdieu); Pragramatics (Austin) Use Approaches: Language Planning, Multilingualism

23. Relations between language and culture Wardhaugh pp. 9-11 Social structure may influence or determine linguistic structure and/or behaviour Linguistic structure/behaviour influences or determines social structure (Whorfian hypothesis)

24. 3. Language and society affect each other4. No relationship at all between language and culture

25. Sociolinguists “whatever it is, is about asking important questions concerning the relationship of language to society” (Wardhaugh 11)

26. Speakers (cultural context) Speakers World View B World View A Language (symbolic systems) Meaning (Semantics) Meaning Language Expansion of World View: Fantini

27. Language Cognition Linguistic Structures Nonverbal Concepts X Cultural Concepts Culture Multidimensional Model:Gonzalez et al.

28. The Inseparable Relationship • Olshtain & Cohen (1991): “If we wish to master another language we need to become communicatively competent in that language. Linguistic accuracy is important for this communicative competence but is not sufficient. In acquiring the new language one needs to assimilate…a set of sociocultural rules that will guide the learner in the choice of appropriate forms.” (p. 154)

29. Fundamental Question a.What is the relationship between language and culture? b.Humans are the only animal to have culture. c.Humans are the only animal to have language. d. How do the two connect? e. What is language? “what members of a particular society speak” (Wardhaugh 1).

30. Symbols • A SYMBOL is something which is used to represent something else, usually a much more complex concept. • We can make symbols mean anything: they are arbitrary and their complexity is essentially unlimited. • Human beings have the ability to think in symbols, and language is both an outgrowth of that ability and probably a necessary part of it:

31. Sapir-Whorf language determines how we see the world and behavior reality is filtered through language categories Sociolinguistics social position determines the content and form of language Thought, Language and Society

32. Dialects • “A language without an army” • A way of speaking in a particular place • e.g. Cockney • Speakers are sometimes considered less intelligent • Ebonics - dialect or language?

33. Bilingualism Argument style is culturally learned “Fat talk” Different ways of speaking depending on age, gender, occupation and class Language and Culture Mother-Infant talk

34. “Fat Talk” • Euro-American adolescent girl’s talk a lot about their body weight and image • “I’m so fat.” “No you’re not.” • Functions as positive reinforcement from friends • Functions to absolve girl from guilty feelings about eating - Nichter and Vuckovic 1994

35. Media anthropologists promote a more holistic approach to news reporting In Japan TV, 90% of staff are men, reflected in program output Critical media anthropologists ask to what degree access to media messages are mind-opening or controlling Mass Media

36. Language and Change • Colonialism was a major force of change • Pidgins • usually limited to trade • National policies of assimilation • Soviet Union • English-only movement in the US

37. Cultural Variables • Attitudes – ethnocentric and stereotypical attitudes are a particular source of noise in cross-cultural communication • Social Organization – nations, tribes, religious sects, or professions can influence our priorities and values • Though Patterns – the logical progression of reasoning varies by culture

38. Cultural Variables • Roles – the perception of the manager’s role differs considerable around the world, consider the conversation between the American and Greek • Nonverbal Communication – behavior communicated without words; even minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality can cause mistrust

39. Cultural Variables • Language – an inability to speak the local language, and a poor or too literal translation are often causes for mistrust • Pepsi’s slogan “Come Alive with Pepsi” translated into German as “Come out of the grave.” • Rendezvous lounges on 747’s were not used on airlines because in Portuguese ‘rendezvous’ refers to prostitution

40. Cultural Variables - Language Britain and America are two nations separated by a common language. - George Bernard Shaw

41. Cultural Variables -Time • Mono-chronic Cultures – Time is experienced in a linear manner; generally mono-chronic people concentrate on one thing at a time and adhere to time commitments • Poly-chronic Cultures – Many things occur simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people

42. Context • Context in which the communication takes place affects the meaning and interpretation of the interaction • Cultures are either high- or low- context

43. Context

44. Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs • Arabs are warm, emotional, and quick to explode • The language aptly communicates the Arabic culture – one of emotional extremes • Contains means for over expression • Words that allow for exaggeration • Metaphors that emphasize a position • Many adjectives • What is said is not as important as how it is said

45. Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs • The core of the culture is friendship, honor, religion, and traditional hospitality • Family and friends take precedence over business transactions • Hospitality is a way of life and is highly symbolic • Women play little or no role n business or entertainment – it is a male-dominated society

46. Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs • Society values honor – which is brought about when conformity is achieved • Shame results not just from doing something wrong but from having others find out about it • High contact and High context

47. Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs

48. Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs • Be patient. Recognize the Arab attitude toward time and hospitality—take time to develop friendship and trust, for these are prerequisites for any social or business transactions. • Recognize that people and relationships matter more to Arabs than the job, company, or contract—conduct business personally, not by correspondence or telephone.

49. Comparative Management Focus: Communicating with Arabs • Avoid expressing doubts or criticism when others are present—recognize the importance of honor and dignity to Arabs. • Adapt to the norms of body language, flowery speech, and circuitous verbal patterns in the Middle East, and don’t be impatient to “get to the point.” • Expect many interruptions in meetings, delays in schedules, and changes in plans.

50. Information Systems • Communication varies according to • Where and how it originates • The channels and the speed which it flows • Whether it is formal or informal • The nature of the organization’s information system are affected by • Organizational structure • Staffing policies • Leadership style