Chapters 4, 5, & 6

1. Chapters 4, 5, & 6 AP Prep Review

2. Sensation/Perception

3. Sensation/Perception • Absolute Threshold • Minimal amount for a stimulus to be detected • Just Noticeable Difference (difference threshold) • Minimum amount of distance between two stimuli that can be detected • Example: playing pairs of tones of varying volumes • Weber’s Law • Size of JND is in constant proportion of the size of the initial stimulus weight lifting 1/30

4. Signal-Detection Theory • Involves decision processes as well as sensory processes • Hit – signal present, person reports sensing it • Miss – signal present, participant did not sense it • False Alarm – signal absent, participant reports sensing it • Correct Rejection – signal absent, participant did not report sensing it

5. Transduction Converted from outward stimulus to the electorchemical signal

6. The Eye • Lens • Focuses light rays on retina • Pupil • Light goes through (black part) • Retina • Absorbs light, processes images, sends visual info to the brain • Rods • Night vision & peripheral vision • Cones • Day time vision & color • Fovea • Tiny spot in the center of the retina, cones only, visual activity greatest at these spots

7. Parallel Processing • Simultaneous extraction of different kinds of info from the same input • Example: Parvocellular channel handles color and perception, and magnocellular handles brightness

8. Color Theory • Young-Helmholtz or Trichromatic Theory • The eye has 3 receptors with different sensitivity to different light waves • Blue, red, green • Opponent Process Theory • Color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors • Red v. Green • Yellow v. Blue • Black v. White • After image • Stair at a red dot, turn to white paper is green

9. Feature Analysis • Bottom-up processing • Individual elements to whole • Top-down processing • Whole to individual • People perceive the whole world before seeing the individual letters

10. Phi Phenomenon Illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession Separate still pictures projected rapidly one after the other, leads you to believe motion is occurring Max Wertheimer

11. Formulating Perception • Distal Stimuli • Stimuli that lie in the distance (exists in environment) • Proximal Stimuli • Stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors (on the retina)

12. Hearing • Cochlea • Fluid filled coiled tunnel contains the receptors for hearing • Basilar membrane • Runs length of spiraled cochlea holding auditory receptors • Auditory receptors = hair cells

13. Theories of Hearing • Place Theory • Hermann von Helmholtz • Perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along basilar membrane • Different hairs set up by different sounds (wrong) • Frequency Theory • Perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates • The whole membrane vibrates in unison in response to sound

14. Senses • Olfactory - smell • Habituation – we become accustomed to stimulus notice it less over time • Dishabituation – small change in stimulus causes to notice it again • Gustation – taste • Tactile – touch • Law of Pragnanz – we see things in its simplest form

15. Gate-Control Theory • Pain can only be felt if it can pass through a gate in the spinal cord • Louisville’s Kevin Ware

16. Consciousness

17. Consciousness • Subliminal perception • Preconscious processing • Presented with a stimulus so rapidly we do not detect • Conscious • Pre (sub) conscious • Unconscious • Repression – forgettabout it • Freudian slips - oops!

18. Sleep • Melatonin – chemical associated with sleep • Circadian Rhythm • 24 hour biological cycle found in humans • We fall asleep at certain points of the day • Sleep (body temp drops) awake (body temp rises) • Occurs even without time cues

19. Electroencephalograph (EEG) • Beta • 13 – 24 cps – normal waking thought, alert • Dreaming • Alpha • 8 – 12 cps – deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation • Theta • 4 – 7 cps – light sleep • Delta • Less then 4 cps – deep sleep • Stage 4

20. Dreaming • REM • Stage 5 • Paradoxical sleep – brain waves resemble when we are awake even though we are in a deep sleep • Manifest – storyline of dream • Latent – symbols underlying meaning • NREM • Stages 1 – 4 • Sleep Spindles • Stage 2 • Brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves

21. Sleep Disorders Narcolepsy Sleep apnea Nightmares v. Night terrors Narcolepsy Sleep walking (somnambulism) Insomnia

22. Activation-synthesis hypothesis of dream Dreams are a product of our awareness of neural activity due to sensory input while we are sleeping. Neural repair, consolidation of memories, and protein synthesis seem to occur during dreams

23. Dreaming Manifest content – Story line of dream Latent content – underlying meaning

24. Learning

25. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov, John Watson & Rosalie Rayner UCS – stimulus creates a unconditioned response without previous conditioning UCR – unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus occurs without previous conditioning CS – previously neutral stimulus that has through conditioning acquired ability to create a CR CR – Learned reaction

26. Classical Conditioning Acquisition – initial stage of learning, pairing items Discrimination – Do not respond to new stimuli as did with the old Generalization – responds to similar stimuli Extinction – gradual weakening/disappearance of CR Spontaneous Recovery – reappearance of extinguished response

27. Classical Conditioning • Second Order Conditioning • Previous CS now used as UCS • Higher Order Conditioning • a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus • New conditioned responses are built on the foundation of already established conditioned response (Red light paired with bell)

28. Garcia Effect • Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) • Garcia Effect • Animals eat food and as a result become nauseated by drug/radiation will not eat that food again • Highly resistant to extinction

29. Instrumental Conditioning(Operant Conditioning) • Edward Thorndike • Law of Effect – behavior is more likely to recur if reinforced • Cat and the puzzle box

30. Instrumental Conditioning (Operant Conditioning) • B.F. Skinner • Shaping – rat near the lever, touching lever, pressing lever • Differential reinforcement of successive approximations – only rewarded for pushing the lever • Primary (natural) reinforcement – Events that are inherently reinforce behaviors because they satisfy biological needs • Food, sex, warmth, water • Secondary Reinforcement - Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcement • Examples: Money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, cars, jewelry

31. Shaping Two Kinds of Stimuli Positive Negative • Positive Reinforcement • Add something that follows the stimulus • Appetitive (good). • Negative Punishment • Removal of an appetitive • Grounded • Timeout • Positive Punishment • Add an aversive (bad) that follows the stimulus • Spanking • Negative Reinforcement • Removal of an aversive • Seatbelt noise • Doing chores

32. Four Basic Methods of Reinforcement Ratio - # Interval - Time FixedSchedules (Regular) • Reinforced after a fixed number of responses • Paid for every 10 pairs of jeans I sell at the GAP. • Two yellow cards = ejected from the volleyball game. • Reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time ahs passed. • Pick up check every two weeks. • Cram for a test, but study a lot less afterwards. • Reinforcement of first response after varying amounts of time. • Surprise quiz in class. • Dialing a friend on the phone and getting a busy signal. Variable Schedules (Irregular) • Reinforcement after varying number of responses • Slot machines • Door to door sales

33. More Terms . . . • Token Economy • Artificial economy based on . . . (you guessed it) tokens • Tokens act as secondary reinforcer and can be used for purchasing primary reinforcer (food). • Learned Helplessness • Consistent effort fails to bring reward • Example: Study for test get bad grade

34. Social Learning (Vicarious Learning) • Bobo Doll • Learning from watching others

35. Cognitive Processes • Edward Tolman • Trained rats to run maze to obtain food (reward) • Cognitive Map • Tolman concluded that rats had a “cognitive map” of where the food was and that it was “over there” (not just a series of right-left responses

36. Latent Learning • Learning that is not expressed until needed • Rats in Tolman’sexperiment