Chapter 18 The Progressive Reform Era

1. Chapter 18The Progressive Reform Era

2. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • Progressivism in the United States is a broadly based reform movement that reached its height early in the 20th century and is generally considered to be middle class and reformist in nature. It arose as a response to the vast changes brought by modernization, such as the growth of large corporations and railroads, and fears of corruption in American politics. • Many of the core principles of the Progressive Movement focused on the need for efficiency in all areas of society. Purification to eliminate waste and corruption was a powerful element. • The new reformers were reacting to the effects of the era’s rapid industrialization, immigration, and urbanization. Industrialization had brought prosperity but at a cost to some members of society. Industrial workers suffered from low incomes and cycles of unemployment. • Working conditions for the poor were deplorable, still foreign and rural immigrants kept seeking factory jobs in cities.

3. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • Slums and congestion plagued many urban areas. To care for growing populations, governments expanded public services, such as pure-water, schools and healthcare. But political corruption and graft often kept these services inadequate. • Many Progressives maintained that private charity could not do enough to improve the lives of the industrial poor. A political debate produced many plans for bringing about progress. • Historians refer to the period from about 1890 to 1920 as the Progressive area.

5. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • Progressivism was not a single unified movement, not everyone shared the same views. The goals fell into four different categories: social, moral, economic, and political. • 1- Government should be more accountable to its citizens • 2- Government should curb the power and influence of wealthy interests. • 3- Government should be given expanded powers so that it could become more active in improving the lives of its citizens. • 4- Governments should become more efficient and less corrupt so that they could competently handle an expanded role

6. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • In 1879, reformer Henry George wrote Progress and Poverty, an effort to explain why poverty continued to plague such an advanced civilization. George, a journalist and self- taught economist, concluded that poverty arose because some people bought and held on to land until its price went up. This practice known as speculation, prevented others from using the land productively. • To solve this problem, George proposed that the government charge landowners a single tax on the value of the land itself. In the past, landowners had been taxed on improvements to the land, such as houses and cultivation. A single tax would make speculation in land less attractive by increasing the cost of holding land without using it. • Many reformers at the turn of the century worked to bring about change in a systematic manner. Relying heavily on scientific data and expert testimony, they first investigated issues of concern, such as conditions in slums and sweatshops. They then publicized the results of their investigations so that the public would pressure legislators to pass and enforce new laws.

7. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • A muckrake is a rake or pitchfork used to clean manure and hay out of stables. Theodore Roosevelt called writers and researchers of the era muckrakers. Roosevelt took the term muckraker from John Bunyan’s 1678 book Pilgrim’s Progress, in which one of the characters was too busy raking filth on Earth to lift his eyes to heaven. • While Roosevelt approved the legitimate exposure of wrongdoing, he condemned those who “earn their livelihood by telling…scandalous falsehoods about honest men” • Americans read the muckrakers’ novels and newspaper accounts with enthusiasm. Whether angered or sickened by what they read, many Americans were inspired to take action by joining reform groups.

8. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • The union movement grew in the 1890’s but only slowly. Employers discouraged union membership, preferring to deal with individual workers. If unions succeeded in forming, business leaders could often count on courts to issue injunctions, court orders that prohibit a certain activity. Courts often issued injunctions preventing workers from going on strike. Unions, however, continued to fight for better working conditions through collective rather than individual bargaining. • The Progressive Era saw a rise in the popularity of socialism, an economic and political philosophy favoring public or government control of property and income. Many American Socialist of this era wanted to end the capitalist system, distribute wealth more equally. And have government ownership of American industries.

9. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • Unlike Socialists and some more radical reformers, most Progressives did not support sweeping economic and political changes. They did not want to lose the high standard of living and personal liberties that democracy and a free enterprise system had given them. Instead, Progressives wanted to free the existing government of corruption and refocus its energies toward guarding the welfare of workers and the poor. • Rising to new levels of civic activism, women played a pivotal role in the reform movements of the Progressive Era. Influential women’s organizations formed around nearly every major reform issue. • One leading women’s group was the National Consumers’ League (NCL), women investigated the conditions under which goods were made and sold. Leagues insisted that factories obey state factory inspection laws and pay a minimum wage.

11. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • Because government services were so essential to their families’ health, women believed they needed the right to vote in order to influence government actions. Women activists did not all agree on methods for reforming society. Many focused on the liquor interests, others on conditions in the workplace. Whatever their focus, all knew that they were powerless without political rights.

12. Section 1- Origins of Progressivism • Florence Kelly- Largely though Kelley’s efforts, in 1893 Illinois passed a law prohibiting child labor, limiting working hours for women, and regulating sweatshop conditions. Kelley later served as general secretary of the National Consumers’ League. Under her leadership the NCL spearheaded national movements to outlaw child labor and protect workers, especially women. • Mother Jones- Irish immigrant Mary Harris Jones came to the reform movement late in her life, inspired by personal convictions and tragedies. Her husband an iron worker, and her four children died in a yellow fever epidemic in Tennessee in 1867. She rebuilt her life, establishing a successful dressmaking business. Then, in 1871, she lost everything in the Great Chicago Fire. In the labor movement “Mother Jones” as she became called, found her life’s work. Across the country, she organized unions for workers, both women and men. A tireless worker, Jones became best known for organizing unions in the mines of West Virginia and Colorado.

14. Review • Define Muckraker • Define injunction • Define speculation • Explain the purpose of the Progressivism • Explain Union, Child Labor, Minimum Wage • Cite some pros and cons of Socialism. • State and identify one famous progressive movement individual.

15. Section 2 Progressive Legislation After a tragic fire that killed 146 people, a Jewish women leader Rose Schneiderman rose up and demanded for change. Schneiderman helped stir powerful public support for reforms. Public and private groups called on the city to appoint fire inspectors, make fire drills compulsory, to unlock and fireproof exits, and to require automatic sprinklers in buildings more than seven stories high. Rose Schneiderman was one of many Progressive leaders who sought more government regulation to protect workers’ rights and business competition. But most Progressives opposed government of businesses, except for companies that supplied essential services such as water and electricity. Progressives also believed that government ought to increase its responsibility for the welfare, or well being of people. They sought more social welfare programs, which help ensure a minimum standard of living. Progressives pressed for social welfare programs such as unemployment benefits, accident and health insurance, and a social security system for the disabled ad the elderly. Progressives envisioned a government that relied on experts and scientists to plan efficient programs managed by professionals, not politicians.

16. Section 2 Progressive Legislation Many of the earliest Progressive reforms were made at the city, or municipal level. Those seeking reform of municipal governments came from within and outside of those governments. Cities were home to most of the settlement workers, club members, and professionals who pressed for changes. Some municipal reformers worked for home rule, a system that gives cities a limited degree of self rule. Home rule allowed cities to escape domination by state governments controlled by political machines or by business or rural interests. Municipal reformers sometimes seemed naïve in their belief that they could abolish corruption. Some reformers also held negative views of immigrants, who they felt were responsible for many city problems. Still, the ideas of municipal activists formed an important part of the era’s spirit of reform. Municipal reformers opposed the influence of political bosses. They argued that only a civil service system based on merit instead of favors would keep political appointees out of important jobs, such as those enforcing labor and public safety laws. In some cities, however, voter support for reforms prompted machine politicians to work with reformers. Together they improved city services, established public health programs and workplace reforms, and enforced tenement codes.

17. Section 2 Progressive Legislation Like the Triangle Shirtwaist fire, other catastrophes served to bring about reforms. On September 8, 1900, a powerful hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico slammed into the city of Galveston, Texas. The storm left more than 6000 people dead when its 120 mile per hour winds and surging waves pounded the unprotected city for 18 hours. To manage the huge relief and rebuilding effort needed, the city created an emergency commission of five appointed administrators to replace the mayor and aldermen. The commission worked so efficiently that Galveston permanently instituted the commission form of government, with later reforms to make it more democratic. Other cities rapidly adopted the Galveston model, adapting it to their needs. Reformers made efforts to regulate of dislodge the monopolies that provided city utilities such as water, gas, and electricity. Reform mayors Hazen Pingree of Detroit, Samuel Jones of Toledo and Tom Johnson of Cleveland worked within existing government structures to pioneer city control of ownership of utilities. By 1915, nearly two out of three cities had some city owned utilities.

18. Section 2 Progressive Legislation Some reform mayors led movements for city supported welfare services. Pingree provided public baths, parks, and work relief program for Detroit. Jones opened playgrounds, free kindergartens ad lodging houses for the homeless in Toledo. In his view, all people would become good citizens if social conditions were good. During the Progressive Era, voters gained somewhat more direct influence in lawmaking and in choosing candidates. Throughout the country, party leaders traditionally had handpicked candidates for public office. In Wisconsin, reform governor Robert M La Follett instituted a direct primary, an election in which citizens vote to select nominees for upcoming elections. Other states later adopted direct primaries for state and local offices. Many states also instituted the initiative, a process in which citizens can put a proposed new law directly on the ballot in the next election by collecting voters signatures on a petition. Another lawmaking reform was the referendum, a process that allows citizens to approve or reject a law passed by the legislature. The recall procedure permits voters to remove public officials form office before the next election. In 1904, Oregon began allowing voters, rather than the state legislature, to choose their United States senators. 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment, requiring the direct election of senators, was ratified by the states.

19. Section 2 Progressive Legislation Motivated in part by the Triangle Shirtwaist fire, state reformers worked to cub workplace hazards. Some states established labor departments to provide information and dispute resolution services to employers and employees. Other states developed workers’ accident insurance and compensation systems. However, government efforts to control working conditions met legal opposition. Business owners contended that the government could not interfere with their constitutional right to make contracts with their employees. They also maintained that government workplace regulations violated their private property rights by attempting to dictate how they used their property. The courts generally upheld these views. Reformers argued that the Constitution reserves police powers to the states, and the states could use these powers to intervene in the workplace to protect workers. In principle, the courts acknowledged the reformers’ reasoning. But I the case of Lochner v. New York, the Supreme Court struck down a law setting maximum hours for bakers. The Court said that since the law had not been shown to protect public health, the law constituted an improper use of the state’s police power and “illegal interference with the rights of individuals to make contracts.”

20. Section 2 Progressive Legislation The justices left open the possibility that if such a law could be shown to protect workers’ health, it would be permissible. Reformers used this strategy in Muller v. Oregon. In this 1908 case, the Court upheld an Oregon law that limited hours for female laundry workers to 10 hrs a day. Reform lawyer Louis D. Brandeis represented the interests of the laundry workers. Using scientific evidence gathered by activists in the National Consumers’ league, he argued that women’s long work hours in laundries harmed their health. Labor reformers succeeded on other fronts as well. By 1907, nearly two thirds of the states had abolished child labor, often defined as employment of children under the age of 14. Minimum wage laws for women and children also made headway, with Florence Kelly leading a national campaign. After Massachusetts adopted a minimum wage in 1912, eight other states followed. One of the most determined Progressives in U.S. politics was Robert M. La Follett of Wisconsin. “Fighting Bob” earned his nick name through efforts to clean up government and produce social welfare reforms. In three terms as a Progressive Republican governor, La Follett ousted party bosses and brought about structural changes such as a direct primary and civil service reform.

21. Section 2 Progressive Legislation La Follett introduced a new way of running state government. He called on academic experts to help draft reform legislation. To get it passed, he had the voting roll call read publicly in the districts of legislators who opposed reform. He drew on academics and citizen committees to run regulatory agencies. The “Wisconsin Idea” of a public academic alliance to improve government became known nationwide. La Follett took his ideas to the U.S. Senate, where he served from 1906 until his death in 1925. Famous for his independence from business interest, he successfully promoted Progressive legislation on the federal level. As the Progressive Party’s candidate for President in 1924, La Follett lost, but received one sixth of the vote. A number of important Progressive reforms were made at the federal level. Beginning with President Theodore Roosevelt in 1901, the White House became a powerful voice for change. In a major expansion of federal authority, Roosevelt used his presidential powers vigorously in domestic matters, just as he did overseas. He viewed the presidency as a “bully pulpit” an ideal platform from which to guide or rally the American public support moral, worthy causes. In the process he created the modern presidency, in which the chief executive is a strong political force.

22. Section 2 Progressive Legislation Teddy got a chance to flex his political muscle in May 1902, when the United Mine Workers called a strike to protest their low wages. As winter approached and mine owners continued to refuse to talk to the union, TR decided to intervene. Lacking coal, the nation would be without a major source of heating fuel. Roosevelt insisted that both sides submit to arbitration, a settlement in which an impartial third party decides on a legally binding solution. To pressure mine owners, TR threatened to use the army to seize and operate the mines. In 1903, arbitrators grated the miners a 10 percent raise and arbitrators did not officially recognize the union, however. When Roosevelt called this a “square deal” for both sides in the coal strike, the phrase became a slogan of his presidency. Although the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890 was in place as a check on big business, it had never been vigorously enforced Reversing the trend, Roosevelt’s Attorney General used the act to sue the Northern Securitized. Company Securitizes was a holding company, a firm that buys up stock and bonds of smaller companies. In doing so, it can create a monopoly. Northern Securities had brought about a modest decline in railroad rates by forming such a monopoly. But in 1904 the government convinced the Supreme court that the company was in violation of the Sherman Act. The court dissolved the company.

23. Section 2 Progressive Legislation The Roosevelt administration filed 42 antitrust actions. The beef trust, Standard Oil, and the American Tobacco Company were either broken up or forced to reorganize. Like most progressives, TR was not anti business. He did not wish to destroy trusts that did not harm the public. But he believed that government should regulate them. An unelected President facing congressional opposition, Roosevelt proceeded with caution in his first term. He used his executive powers to achieve change, creating a political platform and a record on which to run in 1904. His comfortable victory over his Democratic opponent, Alton B Parker, gave Roosevelt a mandate for his pursuit of reforms. He soon used his position to achieve a long sought Progressive goal: regulation of the railroads. After a battle with Congress, Roosevelt won passage of the 1906 Hepburn Act. The act moved the Interstate Commerce Commission out of its largely weak advisory role and gave it strong enforcement powers that were essentially both legislative an judicial. The act authorized the ICC to set and limit railroad rates. Thus, the ICC became the first true federal regulatory agency.

24. Section 2 Progressive Legislation Although Roosevelt denounced the muckrakers at first, public horror over numerous exposes of the food and drug industries persuaded him to respond. The result was the Pure food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act. The 1906 laws required accurate labeling of ingredients, strict sanitary conditions, and a rating system for meats. In response to pressure from labor and women’s groups, in 1912 the government established a Children’s Bureau. A Cabinet level Department of Labor was added in 1913, and a Women’s Bureau in 1920. The two new bureaus, both part of the Department of Labor, supported laws to benefit women and children. Julia Lathrop and Mary Anderson, the heads of these bureaus, became the first women in such federal posts. TR also urged Congress to take further steps to protect the nation’s natural resources. At the urging of explorers and nature writers such as John Wesley Powell and John Muir, Congress had established Yellowstone in Wyoming as the nation’s first national park in 1872. Yosemite National Park in California had been created in 1890. Presidents Harrison and Cleveland had preserved some 35 million acres of forest land.

25. Section 2 Progressive Legislation In 1905, Roosevelt named Gifford Pinchot, a forester, to head a new United States Forest Service. Pinchot sought to develop a policy for land and water use based on scientific data. At his recommendation, TR set aside more than 2000 million acres for national forests, mineral reserves, and water project. The National Reclamation Act, passed in 1902, used money from the sale of public lands to build irrigation systems in arid states. During the Progressive Era, constitutional restraints on federal power gradually diminished. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, authorized Congress to collect federal income taxes. Previously, the government had relied on income form tariffs. Progressives had argued that tariffs pushed up the prices of goods for the working poor. The Sixteenth Amendment enabled the government to get more revenues from people with higher incomes. The Seventeenth Amendment (requiring direct election of senators) also was ratified in 1913. The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, banned the production, sale, or import of alcoholic beverages. But all Progressives favored Prohibition, but many thought it would protect society from the poverty and violence associated with drinking.

26. Section 3 Progressivism Under Taft and Wilson In 1908, Taft won the presidency with the strong backing of Teddy Roosevelt . Taft rallied to lower tariffs, something TR didn’t do. The House passed some reductions while more traditional Republicans in the Senate added some highly protective tariff increases. This was called the Payne Aldrich Tariff. Progressives were furious with Taft. Progressives felt betrayed by Taft on the management of public lands. Taft’s choice for Secretary of the Interior, Richard Ballinger, angered conservationists, people who favor the protection of natural resources. Ballinger opposed conservation policies on federal lands in the West, siding with business interests that sought unrestricted development. There was now a split between the Republican party- Progressive or “Old Guard” TR came back from vacation to find a battle between Taft and the Progressives. TR called for business regulation, welfare laws, workplace protection for women and children, income and inheritance taxes, and voting reform TR called it New Nationalism

27. Section 3 Progressivism Under Taft and Wilson TR challenged Taft for the Republican presidential nomination of 1912 and lost. Progressives formed their own party- Bull Moose Party Bull Moose Party included tariff reduction, women’s suffrage, more regulation of business, a child labor ban, an 8 hour workday, federal workers compensation, and direct election of senators. TR got shot, and still gave a speech! Democratic side nominated Woodrow Wilson. Like TR Wilson wanted Reform, however he criticized both big business and big government. He promoted “New Freedom”- enforce antitrust laws without threatening economic competition. Due to the Republican split between Taft and TR, Wilson won the election Wilson knew how to work the Congress and kept them in session for a year and a half. Wilson reduced tariffs

28. Section 3 Progressivism Under Taft and Wilson Despite the Sherman Act and the trust-busting under Roosevelt and Taft, a congressional committee concluded that a relatively small group of powerful men still controlled much of the nations wealth, business, and credit. He believed that monopolies and trusts lead to economic instability and restriction of free enterprise. He did not want to create more government to monitor trusts, he wanted them gone. The Clayton Antitrust Act was passed to strengthen the Sherman Antitrust Act. Instead of simply making trusts illegal, it spelled out specific activities that big businesses could not do. Companies couldn’t prevent their buyers form purchasing goods for competitors. Holding companies used to create monopolies were banned. Price cutting in local markets were forbidden The act legalized unions. Congress also passed the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)- given power to order “cease and Desist” the practice of business tactics found to be unfair.

29. Section 3 Progressivism Under Taft and Wilson Congress did not give the FTC authority over the banks. Wilson sought a total overhaul of the American banking system to promote competition in the industry and to ease the frequent panics that destabilized the U.S. economy. Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 which created the Federal Reserve System. It divided the country into 12 districts, each with a Federal Reserve bank owned by its member banks. The system was supervised by a Federal Reserve Board appointed by the President. The Federal Reserve banks were the central banks for their regions, the “bankers’ banks”. Every national bank was required to become a member of the Federal Reserve bank in its district and to deposit some of its capital and cash reserves in that bank. Member banks could borrow from the Federal Reserve to meet short term demands. This helped to prevent bank failures that occurred when large numbers of depositors withdrew funds during an economic panic. The system also created a new national currency known as Federal Reserve notes. The Federal Reserve could now expand or contract the amount of currency in circulation according to economic needs.

30. Section 3 Progressivism Under Taft and Wilson By the mid 1910’s Progressives had made broad changes in society, government, and business. The progressive Presidents took little action to pursue social justice reforms. Many African Americans felt ignored by Progressives. A small group of Progressives concerned themselves with the worsening race relations and continued lynching's of the era. The NAACP the national association for the advancement of African Americans. As more nations became involved in WWI, Americans worried about how long they could remain uninvolved. Soon the call for war drowned out the call for reform.

31. Section 4 Women’s Suffrage Women had faced many rejections and arguments as to why they would not be granted suffrage. American women activists first formal demanded the right to vote in 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York. In 1866, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Stanton founded the American Equal Rights Association and the newspaper, The Revolution. Civil Disobedience is a nonviolent refusal to obey a law in an effort to change it. Two paths for women’s suffrage- amending the Constitution or individual states. Susan B. Anthony- “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied by any state based on sex” Susan Anthony was president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. (NAWSA) In 1906 Stanton and Anthony had both died, never living to see the day women could vote. Carrie Chapman Catt had taken over NAWSA. Alice Paul joined the fight and found the Congressional Union.

32. Section 4 Women’s Suffrage Both Catt and Paul set up a parade of 5000 people marching to Washington to protest in front of Wilson. Paul’s Congressional Union was more aggressive and militant, opposed to Catt’s peaceful protests. By 1917, NAWSA had grown into the largest volunteer organization in the country with 2 million members. In the fall of that year, it won an important victory when New York State voted for women’s suffrage. Alice Paul’s CU was arrested and put in prison for actions, where they went on hunger strikes. In 1919, Congress formally proposed the suffrage amendment. It would be ratified in 1920. The 19th Amendment marked the last major reform of the Progressive era.

33. Review/Essay Questions How did TR, Taft, and Wilson compare in their approaches and reform. What was the Clayton Antitrust Act, and why was it important to progressive reformers and labor leaders. What kinds of reforms contributed to an increase in the size and role of government.