The Age of Nation States

1. The Age of Nation States Chapter 23 Eqs: How did unification occur in Italy and Germany in the late 19th century? What reforms were instituted in other European states in reaction to liberal demands?

2. The Impetus for Change • Change begins with the Crimean War (1853-1856)…Russia had long desired expansion southward into the Ottoman realm and fought many wars to expand around the Black Sea • France and Great Britain did NOT want to see Russia gain any more power and were more than happy to prop up the weak Ottoman Empire…in 1854, they declared war on Russia…Russia had hoped to gain support of the expansion minded Prussians and Austrians, but neither joined the fray • The war was largely a weakly fought stalemate by both sides, however, Russia, not the industrial power by any means, was out classed and surrendered in 1856 • The results of the war were clear…France and Britain flexed their muscles …Austria in neutrality demanded territory…Prussia began to desire expansion while Italy feared it…the next 25 years were a period of political experimentation

3. It’s About Germany and Italy People • The major theme in this chapter is how Italy and Germany became one country… • Building a nation became a growing concern of liberals in the Piedmont region of northern Italy who began to feel threatened by expansionists in France and Austria Hungary…liberals felt that only a strong, unified Italian peninsula could prevent further expansion by European neighbors…the only issue, people had different ideas on how that unification should happen • In Prussia, unity was not about defending territory, it was about expanding! Pulling together all of the German states was the most important political event of the late 19th century as it would set the stage for future German expansion in Europe

4. Italian Unification • The story of Italian Unification begins in the 1830s…as the ambitious French are embroiled in revolutions (again) and the Austrians under Metternich are planning a take over of northern Italy, some ROMANTIC Italians are forming their own movement • Romantic Republicans formed factions (one known as the Carbonari failed)…but others under strong leadership succeeded…the most important early Italian nationalist was Giuseppe Mazzini, leader of the Young Italy Society…their goal was simple, drive out the expansionist French and Austrians and make the peninsula republic • Mazzini, along with fellow cohort and Italian National hero Giuseppe Garibaldi led guerilla forces throughout Italy to force its unification and create a republic…moderates, however, did not wish for a Republic…they sought unification through the pope

5. Italian Unification • The true architect of Italian unification was Count Camillodi Cavour, the liberal Prime Minister of the northern kingdom of Piedmont (Italy’s industrial center) • Cavour was a businessman and a statesman all wrapped into one…he was conservative at heart (which is why King Victor Emmanuel chose him) but proved to operate as a liberal politically…in terms of the Nationalist movement, he created the Italian Nationalist society to promote to other Italian states that Piedmont should lead the way for unification (and not the “anarchists” of the Romantic Republican movement) • He brought the Italian unification movement to the European stage via the Crimean War by supporting Britain and France with troops in the war to prove the Italian military had strength • When a radical Italian tried to kill French emperor Napoleon III, Cavour seized the opportunity to make an alliance with the French against Piedmont’s enemy Austria (All Piedmont had to do was give up Nice and Savoy, mostly French speaking areas)

6. Italian Unification • Tensions between Piedmont and Austria came to war in 1859…with the support of the French, Piedmont mobilized its army and defeated the Austrians 2 times over quickly in 1 month • Napoleon III began to fear the strength of his new ally and made a quick peace with Austria…the Italians were angered, but , none the less still gained neighboring Lombardy in the treaty…states south of Piedmont (Parma, Modena, Tuscany , and Romagna) also immediately voted to join with Piedmont • Garibaldi compelled Cavour to unify the entire peninsula quickly…Garibaldi and his “redshirts” landed in Sicily in 1860, taking the island and then the southern mainland…fearing Garibaldi, Cavour sent Piedmont troops south…they captured the remaining Papal States (except Rome which was under French protection) and subdued Garibaldi’s forces…Italy was, at least now, unified into one kingdom

7. The Kingdom of Italy • In 1861, Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont was proclaimed king of the Italian Kingdom…Cavour died later the year leaving the new government to fend for itself without a strong single leader • Divisions immediately developed…the Romantic Republicans were mad that Garibaldi was “back seated”…the church and religious right were angry about the state takeover of their territory…the south continued to rebel against the Piedmont occupation • Another issue was regionalism…Northern Italy and Southern Italy were worlds apart…the North was industrial and wealthy…the South was rural and poor (sound familiar?) • The government choice was also not liked…a constitutional monarchy modeled after what Piedmont already had was used for all of Italy…the executive ministers reported to the king NOT the newly formed parliament…many of these leaders simply ignored economic and social issues • A political system known as transformismo developed (similar to the spoils system) where bribery and nepotism ruled • Most importantly, unification was not complete…Venetia was Austrian until 1866…Rome was still independent until 1870…some smaller states to the east were still held by foreigners and would become part of the reason Italy would later support the allies in World War I against Germany and Austria

8. German Unification • By comparison to Italy, German unification “seemed” much easier…regionalism was not much of an issue…war did occur but only against outside aggression and opposition to German unity (France again) • None the less, German unification was the single most important political event of the second half of the 19th century in Europe, for it set the stage for future events (World Wars) by creating a new powerful state to rival Britain and France • Early on in the 1850s, German unification seemed not likely…the states were loosely connected by trade agreements (Zollverein) and transportation…Prussian leadership had all but given up on earlier ambitions…but the revolutions of 1848 and 1849 changed the game • Frederick William IV, who was not interested anymore in unification, was declared insane in 1858…his brother William I took the throne of Prussia…William first, in true Prussian fashion, re-strengthened the army…when Parliament (the Diet) in Germany refused to raise taxes to fund that rebuilt army, William I looked to Prussia’s most respected statesman of the time

9. German Unification – Otto Von Bismarck (North Dakota) • The appointment of Bismarck was William I’s last desperate effort to avoid parliamentary sovereignty over the military…Bismarck, the skilled legalist he was found a loophole in the Constitution that stated if budgetary issues were not agreed upon the legislature, that the monarch could proceed without their approval • Bismarck next moved to expansionism, targeting German states on the fringe with neighboring states…Schleswig-Holstein was one such target…it had Danish influence, so Bismarck simply went to war to secure it from the Danes • When Austria disagreed with this aggression, Bismarck simply shared the territory with them, but instructed his ministers to be completely rude and obnoxious to the Austrians…a dispute arose which turned into a short 7 Weeks War…the result saw Austria excluded from German affairs in Europe • Northern German states (Hanover, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfurt) had long supported Austria…they saw their leaders disposed and their territories annex by Prussia

10. German Unification – Otto Von Bismarck (North Dakota) • Bismarck took Germany in the Federal direction as new states were annexed…they received local autonomy and local government but had to participate in a new national legislature (Bundesrat upper house of appointed state ministers and Reichstag lower house of elected individuals)…the king of Prussia became the “President” of the Federation and Bismarck became the “Chancellor” • The power structure was certainly still centralized…the Reichstag had little power, it could not create legislation, just debate it and vote on it…it also became divided by many political factions, which were forced to unite for common causes, one of which was approving the military budget, which now happened with little resistance! • The last piece of Bismarck’s plan was to bring southern Germany completely into the picture…to do so meant dealing with opposition from France

11. The Franco-Prussian War • It was actually an insurrection in Spain that helped Bismarck…the military overthrew Isabella II…the Spanish chose a Prussian prince to rule Spain…the French objected…thus became the excuse for war • William I actually acquiesced to the French and withdrew his son as king of Spain…Bismarck simply “edited” the response to the French to show William I had really insulted the French ambassador…it worked…France declared war • Now that war was declared, the states of southern Germany banded behind Prussia…France (and Napoleon III for that matter) was too weak for war and defeat came quickly…in fact, at the Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III was actually captured by the Prussians! The princes of southern Germany even called for William I to take the title of emperor…Germany also ended up with more territory, gaining the Alsace-Lorraine region from France • Unified Germany represented a HUGE loss to liberalism in Europe…a new strong Conservative state was formed, France and Austria became weak

12. Changes in France (AGAIN?!?!) • The humiliating defeat of France and the capture of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War brought yet again a desire for change in France…almost immediately a republic was once again declared in France • Once again, another Paris Commune was elected in 1871 to resist the inept monarchist National Assembly…it declared Paris an autonomous region separate from the rest of France…it was quickly defeated by the National Assembly…Marxists/Socialists saw this as a defeat of the bourgeoisie by a capitalist evil (not true) • None the less, the conservatives were forced into a new republic, one which was divided in loyalties to the House of Bourbon and the House of Orleans…this disagreement coupled with the inability to find a king led to the election of a strong president (Marshal MacMahon) • The National Assembly coalesced the new government by creating a “Chamber of Deputies” elected by the people, a Senate chosen by appointment and a president now chosen by both the legislative bodies…few thought it possible, but this system actually survived, despite corruption issues and various scandals

13. The Dreyfus Affair • JUDEN!!! JUDEN!!! He was found guilty of passing French secrets to the German, mainly because he was Jewish…he was sent to Devil’s Island prison…another officer was found to have committed forgery but was acquitted • Dreyfus’ conviction sent a storm of fury through minority groups in France…author Emile Zola published a famous article, J’accuse, which he scathingly chided the army for creating an anti-Semite atmosphere in France by oppressing Dreyfuss…he was convicted of libel by the government and given a 1 year prison sentence which he avoid by running to England • Eventually, the threat of ANOTHER liberal/radical revolution led to another trial for Dreyfus, who was again convicted…the president of France pardoned him in 1906 • Again, politics in France were shaken…Conservatives defended their treatment of this situation…radicals, liberals and socialists banded together, realizing that they would need to form a strong coalition to defeat Conservative rule in France, something that would not happen until after WWII.

14. Hapsburg Issues • The frequent defeats of the Austrian military in the late 1800s as they attempted expansion forced Emperor Francis Joseph to take a different tact…he asserted absolutism…he refused to help Russia in the Crimea War for fear of spreading his armies too thin (which in turn Russia refused to pledge support for Austrian rule in Hungary) • Austria could no longer ignore the Hungary issue…by the 1860s, Francis Joseph tried to issue several month named decrees to placate the Hungarians (October Diploma, Feburary Patent), all of which were rejected by the Hungarians • In 1867, the Augsleich (Compromise of 1867), created a dual monarchy, Austria-Hungary…Francis Joseph was monarch of both states, but their political bodies were internally separate, one parliament for Austria, one parliament for Hungary…separate bureaucracies which maintained separate affairs…only the foreign affairs, defense and finance ministers were shared by each state • The ultimate result of this compromise was clear…nationalist groups, seeing this separation, began to demand for their own autonomy and freedom…Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Romanians, Croats, Serbs, Poles and even Ukranians began to demand greater recognition from the empire…none of this, however, would be resolved until after WWI and even WWII

15. Russian Reforms • The loss of the Crimean War had a massive impact on Russia…it revealed to the common people that Russia was indeed weak and vulnerable to invasion from outside forces and could be toppled at any moment • Czar Alexander II had to make moves to maintain order within his state…the first was easy, ABOLISH SERFDOM…Alexander II figured it would placate the ire…it only made matters worse as serfs, now free, began to migrate to cities looking for better opportunities that did not exist (as Russia did not have much industry) • Alexander II led political reforms as well, creating new local governments (zemstvos) that were meant to try to keep serfs from leaving the country (give ‘em a lil political power and hopefully they will stay)…it did not work as well since these local governments had very little power • Alexander’s inability to rule started many revolutionary movements in Russia, many based on socialist and Marxist ideas…one, The People’s Will eventually succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881…his son Alexander III and did not do much better…though he brought more industry to Russia, poverty and inequality took Russia down a dark road to Revolution

16. British Reforms While nation’s on the continent of Europe struggled, Britain maintained as a confident liberal state The Reform Act of 1867, passed by conservatives under the leadership of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, expanded the electorate well beyond the limits proposed earlier in the century by liberals…a larger number of working class voters had now been added to the electorate…the Conservatives and Disraeli had hoped this would gain them support However, it did not, and liberals gained more support in England and elected a new Prime Minister, William Gladstone, in 1868, changing England’s government drastically…Gladstone’s leadership produced many further liberal changes In 1870, an Education Act was passed to create the first system of national schools for British children (almost effectively putting an end to child labor nation wide)…however, too many reforms caused people to be scared…Disraeli and the conservatives were put back in power in 1874 Disraeli’s second time around saw unique attempts by the conservatives to deal with poverty and the working class, including the creation of housing and unions…however, problems with Ireland caused the government to shift back into the hands of Gladstone in 1880