1 / 25

Stability, Security and Development

Stability, Security and Development. GP3200 August 20, 2013 Rand, Overcoming Obstacles to Peace Sierra Leone Case Study Dr Robert E. Looney relooney@nps.edu. Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone Overview I. Civil war in Sierra Leone began in 1991

navid
Download Presentation

Stability, Security and Development

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript


  1. Stability, Security and Development GP3200 August 20, 2013 Rand, Overcoming Obstacles to Peace Sierra Leone Case Study Dr Robert E. Looney relooney@nps.edu

  2. Sierra Leone

  3. Sierra Leone Overview I • Civil war in Sierra Leone began in 1991 • Started with an invasion of armed rebels coming from and supported by one of the contending factions in Liberia • In 2004 the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission also cited as key factors to the war • Poor governance • Rampant corruption • Denial of human rights • Disregard for democracy and the rule of law • Economic deterioration and • Sub-regional instability

  4. Sierra Leone: Overview II • At the end of the war in 2002 Sierra Leone received considerable attentional from international donors • Particularly former colonial ruler Brittan • Nation building efforts have attempted to address the roots of the conflict by • Improving governance • Strengthening state institutions • Regulating the mining industry • Providing opportunities for the young and • Reforming the country’s armed forces

  5. Sierra Leone: Overview III • During more than a decade of nation building: • Donors have achieved mixed results • Prompting them to redirect their efforts and change strategies • Overall progress in Sierra Leone remains tenuous because • Patronage and corruption are proving hard to eradicate • The country remains extremely fragile economically

  6. Sierra Leone I Local Factors Before the Peace • Country has significant resources • Diamonds, bauxite and gold • Forests, good agricultural land and fisheries • Governed by long-standing rulers who utilized patronage to stay power • Country had become a “shadow state” • Government institutions were ineffective focused on providing funds for ministers and employees • Country largely a failed state before start of civil war • War only exacerbated those factors that helped precipitate it • Easily accessible and poorly regulated diamond resources fueled the conflict • Rebel movement (RUF) attracted disaffected ethnic groups

  7. Sierra Leone II • Geographical and Geopolitical • Proximity to Liberia and the porosity of its borders have make Sierra Leone vulnerable to spillovers from that country’s crisis • War in Sierra Leone started when Charles Taylor, leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), supported the RUF’s invasion of Sierra Leone • Taylor’s motive -- get access to Sierra Leone’s diamonds to help fund the NPFL • Diamonds are alluvial – anyone with limited equipment can become a diamond miner • Ease of extraction together with size of diamonds makes them easy to smuggle made them an ideal way to fund the conflict • RUF not only group to use diamonds • Many elements of the army, paramilitary groups also involved in illegal mining.

  8. Sierra Leone III • Cultural and Social • Rural region of Sierra Leone bordering Liberia vulnerable to RUF incursion because of human as well as physical terrain • Sierra Leone population divided among several ethnic and social groups • Limits sense of national identity • Made it easier for the RUF to find recruits. • Tribes and ethnicities usually lived together rather peacefully during pre-independence era. • Changed as politicians started to rely on their own tribes to garner political support and as the population grew • While ethnic tensions had some role in the conflict, indirect – resentment over government favoritism undermine legitimacy of state and shifted loyalties away from the state

  9. Sierra Leone IV • Another factor facilitating the sustained conflict was emergence of disaffected youth • Before and right after independence country had excellent educational system • From 1968 to 1985 drastically changed – public support for education was halved • Overwhelming majority of youth grew up without education and struggled to find employment • 1985 country ad the lowest adult literacy rate out of 160 countries • During war lack of educational and economic opportunities played role in making recruits available for different fighting factions. • RUF promised them food, money and in some cases scholarships to study abroad.

  10. Sierra Leone V • War only compounded the difficulties of the population • RUF’s systematic mutilation of civilians had dramatic social and economic consequences for a population made up mostly of farmers • Almost 7,000 of combatants demobilized by the UN Mission were child soldiers • Economic • In spite of many natural resources, Sierra Leone’s economy steadily declined during independence years • By 1991 country was at the bottom of the UN’s HDI • Value of agricultural production had declined to $10 million • In mid-1980s Sierra Leone’s foreign debt equivalent to 300 percent of its export revenue

  11. Sierra Leone VI • Mismanagement of diamond industry played large part in fall of government revenues between 1970-1990 • In the 1960s diamonds provided Sierra Leone with revenue equal to one-fifth the country’s GDP and 70% of foreign exchange earnings • President Stevens gained support for his party before 1967 elections by promising illicit miners he would not interfere with their activities if they helped him get elected. • By 1988 most of diamond mining had shifted to illicit sphere • Value of exports of legal diamonds had dropped to $22,000

  12. Sierra Leone VII • Next president started military operations against illegal miners – 25,000 lost their livelihoods without any alternatives • Many joined ranks of RUF when war broke out • Country’s economic situation only made worse by the war • Destroyed half the country’s infrastructure • Although state revenue remained minimal, in 1995 military absorbed 75% of spending • State lost what little control it had over its resources • RUF looted the country (practice called “Operation Pay Yourself”)

  13. Sierra Leone VIII • Political • Country’s patronage system facilitated war in several ways • First – such systems are very vulnerable to external shocks such as economic crisis • Reason: based on a leader or ruling coalition providing privileges to its supporters rather than on the creaton of a political and moral community • When there are no more resources to distribute to political clients – system collapses. • Second, large segments of the population did not benefit from the patronage networks • Resented the government for not providing them with most-basic public services • First segment to go with the RUF when war broke out in 1991

  14. Sierra Leone IX • Third: The patronage system created a highly fragmented state with patronage networks competing against each other • Fourth: Because the system stifled dissent from those who did not benefit from it, violence became an option for the disgruntled population • Institutional • Prior to conflict lack of effective state institutions enabled rampant corruption and shrinking of the formal economy – especially extractive industries • Allowed present Stevens to put into place an elaborate patronage system funded by large scale looting of state revenue • Stevens’ replacement in 1985 by President Momoh did nothing to improve situation • State almost bankrupt at one point • Many emigrated

  15. Sierra Leone X • Lack of capacity of Sierra Leone’s army not directly a cause of war, but contributed to prolonging it. • President Stevens intentionally sidelined country’s armed forces during his rule – relied on a paramilitary unit whose function was state security • During war appalling fighting conditions for the military resulted in • Large number of soldiers colluding with the RUF • Looting property • Engaging in illegal mining • The Sierra Leone Police – • Dysfunctional with unskilled and underpaid personnel who lacked equipment and vehicles • Earned a reputation for inefficiency and corruption

  16. Sierra Leone XI • Nation Building Efforts • Started before the conflict officially ended in January 2002 • In 1998 England started plans with the Sierra Leone government for a reform of the sector • International community addressed governance and economic issues • With a focus on offering more opportunities to the young who had been prime recruits of the RUF • Improving governance included • efforts to increasing accountability of public officials, • countering rampant corruption • decentralizing government and • reforming the army and the police

  17. Sierra Leone XII • Economic Measures Included • Restructuring and monitoring the diamond industry • Restoring the state’s ability to generate revenues • Programs failed to meet donor expectations • Cultural and social • In attempt to heal the traumas of the war, government with support of international donors set up several transitional justice mechanisms • Special court established for war crimes • Truth and Reconciliation commission also established • Reintegrating Sierra Leone’s former combatants another priority • More than 70,000 combatants benefited from UN-managed DDR program completed in 2004

  18. Sierra Leone XIII • Reintegration program criticized on several counts • It taught former combatants skills (carpenters, plumbers and auto mechanics) skills that are in low demand in a country as poor as Sierra Leone • Some beneficiaries simply resold the tool kit they had been given once they realized they would not find work. • The DDR program largely overlooked needs of female ex-combatants • They represented less than 7 percent of the total number of combatants formally demobilized, • But their estimated participation in the war was 10 to 50 percent varying among the warring factions.

  19. Sierra Leone XIV • International donors focused on the education system • Literacy rates began to increase rapidly – 41 percent for adults and 58 percent for youths • Still considerably below the regional average • Economic Assistance • Started before the conflict ended in 2001 • IMF, EU, World Bank program to designed to bring more revenue to the government • Not only through tax collection • Also countering the plundering of resources • U.S. Coast Guard provided three patrol boats to counter illegal fishing which was costing the country $10 million per year

  20. Sierra Leone XV • Another important step in giving Sierra Leone’s government more control over its budget was the cancellation, in 2006 of the country’s $1.6 billion external debt • Even before the war ended efforts to control “conflict diamonds” -- plundering of diamonds to fund the fighting • Kimberly process put in place certifying the origin of diamonds • Other initiatives Kono Peace Diamond Alliance supported by USAID also put in place • These initiatives were only partially successful – • problems in managing donor assistance – • underlying assumptions not completely accurate

  21. Sierra Leone XVI Outcomes: • In the 10 years since the end of its civil war, • Sierra Leone remained at peace and • Democratization made significant advances but • Government effectiveness improved only slightly • Per capita GDP increased by 72.7% but • Socioeconomic development remained very low • Nation building in Sierra Leone has required reconstructing a failed state rather than simply stabilizing a post-conflict country • Has required a very broadly conceived program of social and institutional reforms

  22. Sierra Leone XVII

  23. Sierra Leone XVIII • Sierra Leone’s patronage system was an important source of grievances and social fragmentation giving rise to conflict • Patronage networks are still prevalent in the country, although at the same time democratic processes are taking hold • Weak military capabilities contributed to prolonging the conlict • Since the conflict the military has improved considerably through UK efforts • However in other areas including the police institutional development is still at its first stages • Corruption continues to plague institutional development

  24. Sierra Leone XIX • As of 2012 the overall situation in Sierra Leone was peaceful but fragile • Country’s socioeconomic performance is still very weak – 180th out of 187 countries in the UN’s 2011 HDI • Corruption still constrainst state revenue and weakens the confidence of public instate institutions • Army and more so the police lack skills and equipment • The new decentralized governance system is still seeking a balance between traditional chiefs and local officials • Young men remain disproportionately unemployed compared with other categories of the population

  25. Sierra Leone XX • Although many of the factors that gave rise to the coflct have not been successfully addressed • External factor that triggered the conflict has been resolved • Sierra Leone should be considered vulnerable to conflict should some new trigger emerge.

More Related